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History of the domestic electronic component base (ECB). Year the first integrated circuit made on a silicon wafer went on sale Year the integrated circuit went on sale

VLSI

Modern integrated circuits designed for surface mounting.

Soviet and foreign digital microcircuits.

integral(engl. Integrated circuit, IC, microcircuit, microchip, silicon chip, or chip), ( micro)scheme (IC, IC, m/s), chip, microchip(English) chip- a chip, a chip, a chip) - a microelectronic device - an electronic circuit of arbitrary complexity, made on a semiconductor crystal (or film) and placed in a non-separable case. often under integrated circuit(IC) understand the actual crystal or film with an electronic circuit, and under microchip(MS) - IP enclosed in a case. At the same time, the expression "chip components" means "surface mount components" in contrast to components for traditional soldering through holes on the board. Therefore, it is more correct to say "chip microcircuit", meaning a microcircuit for surface mounting. At the moment (year), most of the microcircuits are manufactured in surface-mounted packages.

Story

The invention of microcircuits began with the study of the properties of thin oxide films, which manifest themselves in the effect of poor electrical conductivity at low electrical voltages. The problem was that there was no electrical contact at the point of contact between the two metals, or it had polar properties. Deep studies of this phenomenon led to the discovery of diodes and later transistors and integrated circuits.

Design levels

Physical - methods for implementing one transistor (or a small group) in the form of doped zones on a crystal.
Electrical - a circuit diagram (transistors, capacitors, resistors, etc.).
Logic - a logical circuit (logical inverters, elements OR-NOT, AND-NOT, etc.).
Circuit and system level - circuit and system engineering circuits (flip-flops, comparators, encoders, decoders, ALUs, etc.).
Topological - topological photomasks for production.
Program level (for microcontrollers and microprocessors) - assembler instructions for the programmer.

Currently, most of the integrated circuits are developed using CAD, which allow you to automate and significantly speed up the process of obtaining topological photomasks.

Classification

Degree of integration

Purpose

An integrated circuit can have a complete, arbitrarily complex, functionality - up to a whole microcomputer (single-chip microcomputer).

Analog Circuits

Signal generators
Analog multipliers
Analog attenuators and adjustable amplifiers
Power Supply Stabilizers
Control microcircuits of switching power supplies
Signal converters
Timing schemes
Various sensors (temperature, etc.)

Digital Circuits

Logic elements
Buffer converters
Memory modules
(Micro)processors (including the CPU in a computer)
Single-chip microcomputers
FPGA - Programmable Logic Integrated Circuits

Digital integrated circuits have a number of advantages over analog ones:

Reduced power consumption associated with the use of pulsed electrical signals in digital electronics. When receiving and converting such signals, the active elements of electronic devices (transistors) operate in the "key" mode, that is, the transistor is either "open" - which corresponds to a high level signal (1), or "closed" - (0), in the first case on transistor there is no voltage drop, in the second - no current flows through it. In both cases, the power consumption is close to 0, in contrast to analog devices, in which the transistors are in the intermediate (resistive) state most of the time.
High noise immunity digital devices is associated with a large difference between high (for example, 2.5 - 5 V) and low (0 - 0.5 V) level signals. An error is possible with such interference, when a high level is perceived as low and vice versa, which is unlikely. In addition, in digital devices, it is possible to use special codes that allow you to correct errors.
The large difference between high and low level signals and a fairly wide range of their allowable changes makes digital technology insensitive to the inevitable scatter of element parameters in integrated technology, eliminates the need to select and configure digital devices.

First integrated circuits

Dedicated to the 50th anniversary of the official date

B. Malashevich

On September 12, 1958, an employee of Texas Instruments (TI) Jack Kilby demonstrated to the management three strange devices - devices glued with beeswax on a glass substrate from two pieces of silicon measuring 11.1 × 1.6 mm (Fig. 1). These were three-dimensional layouts - prototypes of an integrated circuit (IC) of the generator, proving the possibility of manufacturing all circuit elements based on a single semiconductor material. This date is celebrated in the history of electronics as the birthday of integrated circuits. But is it?

Rice. 1. Model of the first IS by J. Kilby. Photo from http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1958-Miniaturized.html

By the end of the 1950s, the technology of assembling radio-electronic equipment (REA) from discrete elements had exhausted its possibilities. The world came to the most acute crisis of REA, radical measures were required. By that time, integrated technologies for the production of both semiconductor devices and thick-film and thin-film ceramic boards had already been industrially mastered in the USA and the USSR, i.e., the prerequisites were ripe for overcoming this crisis by creating multi-element standard products - integrated circuits.

Integrated circuits (microcircuits, ICs) include electronic devices of varying complexity, in which all elements of the same type are manufactured simultaneously in a single technological cycle, i.e. by integrated technology. Unlike printed circuit boards (in which all connecting conductors are simultaneously manufactured in a single cycle using integrated technology), resistors, capacitors, and (in semiconductor ICs) diodes and transistors are similarly formed in ICs. In addition, many ICs are manufactured at the same time, from tens to thousands.

ICs are developed and produced by the industry in the form of series, combining a number of microcircuits of various functional purposes, intended for joint use in electronic equipment. The series ICs have a standard design and a unified system of electrical and other characteristics. ICs are supplied by the manufacturer to different consumers as independent commercial products that meet a certain system of standardized requirements. ICs are classified as non-repairable products; when repairing electronic equipment, failed ICs are replaced.

There are two main groups of integrated circuits: hybrid and semiconductor.

In hybrid ICs (HICs), all conductors and passive elements are formed on the surface of a microcircuit substrate (usually made of ceramics) using integrated technology. Active elements in the form of packageless diodes, transistors and semiconductor IC crystals are installed on the substrate individually, manually or automatically.

In semiconductor ICs, connecting, passive and active elements are formed in a single technological cycle on the surface of a semiconductor material (usually silicon) with a partial intrusion into its volume by diffusion methods. At the same time, from several tens to several thousand ICs are manufactured on one semiconductor wafer, depending on the complexity of the device and the size of its crystal and wafer. The industry produces semiconductor ICs in standard packages, in the form of individual chips or in the form of undivided wafers.

The phenomenon of the world of hybrid (GIS) and semiconductor ICs occurred in different ways. GIS is a product of the evolutionary development of micromodules and ceramic board technology. Therefore, they appeared imperceptibly, there is no generally accepted date of birth of GIS and a generally recognized author. Semiconductor ICs were a natural and inevitable result of the development of semiconductor technology, but required the generation of new ideas and the creation of new technologies that have their own dates of birth and their own authors. The first hybrid and semiconductor ICs appeared in the USSR and the USA almost simultaneously and independently of each other.

First hybrid ICs

Hybrid ICs include ICs, the production of which combines an integral technology for the manufacture of passive elements with an individual (manual or automated) technology for installing and mounting active elements.

Back in the late 1940s, the Centralab firm in the USA developed the basic principles for the manufacture of thick-film ceramic-based printed circuit boards, which were then developed by other firms. It was based on the manufacturing technologies of printed circuit boards and ceramic capacitors. From printed circuit boards, they took an integral technology for the formation of the topology of connecting conductors - silk-screen printing. From capacitors - the substrate material (ceramics, more often sital), as well as paste materials and the thermal technology of their fixing on the substrate.

And in the early 1950s, RCA invented thin-film technology: spraying various materials in a vacuum and depositing them through a mask on special substrates, they learned how to simultaneously produce many miniature film connecting conductors, resistors and capacitors on a single ceramic substrate.

Compared to thick-film technology, thin-film technology provided the possibility of more accurate manufacturing of smaller topology elements, but required more complex and expensive equipment. Devices manufactured on ceramic boards using thick-film or thin-film technology are called “hybrid circuits”. Hybrid circuits were produced as components of their own production, their design, dimensions, and functional purpose were different for each manufacturer, they did not enter the free market, and therefore are little known.

Hybrid circuits also invaded micromodules. At first, they used discrete passive and active miniature elements, combined with traditional printed wiring. The assembly technology was complex, with a huge share of manual labor. Therefore, micromodules were very expensive, their use was limited to on-board equipment. Then thick-film miniature ceramic scarves were used. Further on, thick-film technology began to produce resistors. But diodes and transistors were still used discrete, individually packaged.

The micromodule became a hybrid integrated circuit at the moment when packageless transistors and diodes were used in it and the structure was sealed in a common housing. This made it possible to significantly automate the process of their assembly, sharply reduce prices and expand the scope of application. According to the method of formation of passive elements, thick-film and thin-film GIS are distinguished.

The first GIS in the USSR

The first GIS (modules of the “Kvant” type, later designated IS series 116) in the USSR were developed in 1963 at NIIRE (later NPO Leninets, Leningrad) and in the same year its pilot plant began their mass production. In these GIS, semiconductor ICs “R12-2”, developed in 1962 by the Riga plant of semiconductor devices, were used as active elements. Due to the inseparability of the histories of the creation of these ICs and their characteristics, we will consider them together in the section on P12-2.

Undoubtedly, the Kvant modules were the first in the world of GIS with two-level integration - as active elements, they used not discrete frameless transistors, but semiconductor ICs. It is likely that they were the first GIS in the world - structurally and functionally complete multi-element products supplied to the consumer as independent commercial products. The earliest foreign similar products identified by the author are the IBM SLT modules described below, but they were announced the following year, 1964.

First GIS in the USA

The appearance of thick-film GIS as the main element base of the new IBM System /360 computer was first announced by IBM in 1964. It seems that this was the first application of GIS outside the USSR, the author could not find earlier examples.

Semiconductor ICs of the “Micrologic” series by Fairchild and “SN-51” by TI (we will talk about them below) already known at that time in the circles of specialists were still inaccessibly rare and prohibitively expensive for commercial use, which was the construction of a mainframe computer. Therefore, IBM Corporation, taking the design of a flat micromodule as a basis, developed its own series of thick-film GIS, announced under the general name (as opposed to “micromodules”) - “SLT-modules” (Solid Logic Technology - solid logic technology. Usually the word “s solid” translated into Russian as "solid", which is absolutely illogical. Indeed, the term "SLT-modules" was introduced by IBM as an opposition to the term "micromodule" and should reflect their difference. But both modules are "solid", i.e. this translation is not The word "solid" has other meanings - "solid", "whole", which successfully emphasize the difference between "SLT-modules" and "micromodules" - SLT-modules are indivisible, non-repairable, i.e. "whole". Therefore we used a non-standard translation into Russian: Solid Logic Technology - solid logic technology).

The SLT module was a half-inch square thick-film ceramic microplate with pressed-in vertical pins. Connecting conductors and resistors were applied to its surface by silk-screen printing (according to the scheme of the implemented device), and packageless transistors were installed. Capacitors, if necessary, were installed next to the SLT module on the device board. With external almost identical (micromodules are somewhat higher, Fig. 2.), SLT modules differ from flat micromodules in a higher density of elements, low power consumption, high speed and high reliability. In addition, SLT technology was fairly easy to automate, so they could be produced in large quantities at a cost low enough to be used in commercial equipment. This is exactly what IBM needed. The firm built an automated factory at East Fishkill near New York to manufacture SLT modules, which produced them in millions of copies.

Rice. 2. USSR micromodule and SLT-module f. IBM. STL photo from http://infolab.stanford.edu/pub/voy/museum/pictures/display/3-1.htm

Following IBM, GIS began to be produced by other companies for which GIS became a commercial product. The typical design of flat micromodules and SLT modules from IBM Corporation has become one of the standards for hybrid ICs.

First semiconductor ICs

By the end of the 1950s, the industry was well positioned to produce cheap electronic components. But if transistors or diodes were made from germanium and silicon, then resistors and capacitors were made from other materials. Many then believed that when creating hybrid circuits, there would be no problems in assembling these elements, made separately. And if it is possible to manufacture all elements of a standard size and shape and thereby automate the assembly process, then the cost of the equipment will be significantly reduced. On the basis of such reasoning, the supporters of hybrid technology considered it as a general direction in the development of microelectronics.

But not everyone shared this opinion. The fact is that the mesa transistors already created by that period, and especially planar transistors, were adapted for batch processing, in which a number of operations for the manufacture of many transistors on one substrate plate were carried out simultaneously. That is, many transistors were manufactured at once on one semiconductor wafer. Then the plate was cut into individual transistors, which were placed in individual cases. And then the hardware manufacturer combined the transistors on a single printed circuit board. There were people who found this approach ridiculous - why disconnect the transistors, and then combine them again. Is it possible to combine them immediately on a semiconductor wafer? At the same time, get rid of several complex and expensive operations! These people invented semiconductor ICs.

The idea is extremely simple and completely obvious. But, as often happens, only after someone first announced it and proved it. It proved that it is often not enough to simply announce, as in this case. The idea of IC was announced as early as 1952, before the advent of batch methods for the manufacture of semiconductor devices. At the annual conference on electronic components, held in Washington, the British Royal Radar Office in Malvern, Geoffrey Dummer, presented a report on the reliability of radar equipment components. In the report, he made a prophetic statement: “ With the advent of the transistor and work in the field of semiconductor technology, one can generally imagine electronic equipment in the form of a solid block that does not contain connecting wires. The block may consist of layers of insulating, conductive, rectifying and reinforcing materials, in which certain areas are cut out so that they can directly perform electrical functions”. But this prediction went unnoticed by experts. They remembered it only after the appearance of the first semiconductor ICs, i.e., after the practical proof of a long-announced idea. Someone had to be the first to reformulate and implement the idea of a semiconductor IC.

As in the case of the transistor, the generally accepted semiconductor IC builders had more or less successful predecessors. An attempt to implement his idea in 1956 was made by Dammer himself, but failed. In 1953, Harvick Johnson of RCA received a patent for a single-chip oscillator, and in 1958, together with Thorkel Wallmark, announced the concept of a "semiconductor integrated device." In 1956, Ross, an employee of Bell Labs, made a binary counter circuit based on n-p-n-p structures in a single single crystal. In 1957, Yasuro Taru of the Japanese firm MITI received a patent for combining different transistors in a single chip. But all these and other similar developments were of a private nature, were not brought to production and did not become the basis for the development of integrated electronics. Only three projects contributed to the development of IP in industrial production.

The already mentioned Jack Kilby from Texas Instruments (TI), Robert Noyce from Fairchild (both from the USA) and Yuri Valentinovich Osokin from the Design Bureau of the Riga Semiconductor Devices Plant (USSR) turned out to be lucky. The Americans created experimental models of integrated circuits: J. Kilby - a model of the generator IC (1958), and then a mesa-transistor trigger (1961), R. Noyce - a planar technology trigger (1961), and Yu. Osokin - the logical IC "2NOT-OR" in Germany that immediately went into serial production (1962). These firms began serial production of ICs almost simultaneously, in 1962.

First semiconductor ICs in the USA

IP Jack Kilby. IS Series “ SN-51”

In 1958, J. Kilby (a pioneer in the use of transistors in hearing aids) moved to Texas Instruments. Newcomer Kilby, as a circuit engineer, was “thrown” to improve the micromodule stuffing of rockets by creating an alternative to micromodules. The option of assembling blocks from standard-shaped parts, similar to assembling toy models from LEGO figures, was considered. But Kilby was fascinated by something else. The “fresh look” effect played a decisive role: firstly, he immediately stated that micromodules are a dead end, and secondly, having admired the mesa structures, he came to the conclusion that the circuit should (and can) be implemented from one material - a semiconductor. Kilby was aware of Dummer's idea and his failure to implement it in 1956. After analyzing, he understood the reason for the failure and found a way to overcome it. “ My merit is that by taking this idea, I turned it into reality.”, said J. Kilby later in his Nobel speech.

Having not yet earned the right to leave, he worked without interference in the laboratory while everyone was resting. On July 24, 1958, Kilby formulated a concept in a laboratory journal called the Monolithic Idea. Its essence was that ". ..circuit elements such as resistors, capacitors, distributed capacitors and transistors can be integrated into one chip - provided that they are made of the same material ... In the design of a flip-flop circuit, all elements must be made of silicon, and the resistors will be use silicon volume resistance, and capacitors - capacitances of p-n junctions” . “The idea of a monolith” met with a condescendingly ironic attitude from the management of Texas Instruments, who demanded proof of the possibility of manufacturing transistors, resistors and capacitors from a semiconductor and the operability of a circuit assembled from such elements.

In September 1958, Kilby realized his idea - he made a generator from two pieces of germanium 11.1 x 1.6 mm in size, glued with beeswax on a glass substrate, containing two types of diffusion regions (Fig. 1). He used these areas and the available contacts to create a generator circuit, connecting the elements with thin gold wires with a diameter of 100 microns by thermocompression welding. From one area, a mestransistor was created, from the other, an RC chain. The assembled three generators were demonstrated to the company's management. When power was connected, they worked at a frequency of 1.3 MHz. It happened on September 12, 1958. A week later, Kilby made an amplifier in a similar fashion. But these were not integrated structures yet, they were three-dimensional layouts of semiconductor ICs, proving the idea of manufacturing all circuit elements from one material - a semiconductor.

Rice. 3. Type 502 trigger J. Kilby. Photo from http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1958-Miniaturized.html

Kilby's first truly integrated circuit, made in a single piece of monolithic germanium, was the Type 502 experimental trigger IC (Fig. 3). It used both the bulk resistance of germanium and the capacitance of the p-n junction. Its presentation took place in March 1959. A small number of such ICs were made in the laboratory and sold in a narrow circle at a price of $450. The IC contained six elements: four mesa transistors and two resistors placed on a silicon wafer with a diameter of 1 cm. But Kilby's IC had a serious drawback - mesa transistors, which, in the form of microscopic “active” columns, towered above the rest, “passive” part of the crystal. The connection of the mesa-pillars to each other in the Kilby IS was carried out by boiling thin gold wires - the “hairy technology” hated by everyone. It became clear that with such interconnections, a microcircuit with a large number of elements cannot be made - the wire web will break or re-close. Yes, and germanium at that time was already considered as a material not promising. The breakthrough didn't happen.

By this time, planar silicon technology had been developed at Fairchild. Given all this, Texas Instruments had to put everything that Kilby had done aside and proceed, without Kilby, to the development of a series of ICs based on planar silicon technology. In October 1961, the company announced the creation of a series of ICs of the SN-51 type, and since 1962 began their mass production and supply in the interests of the US Department of Defense and NASA.

IP by Robert Noyce. IS Series “Micrologic”

In 1957, for a number of reasons, W. Shockley, the inventor of the junction transistor, left a group of eight young engineers who wanted to try to implement their own ideas. The “Eight of Traitors,” as Shockley called them, led by R. Noyce and G. Moore, founded Fairchild Semiconductor (“beautiful child”). The company was headed by Robert Noyce, he was then 23 years old.

At the end of 1958, physicist D. Horney, who worked at Fairchild Semiconductor, developed a planar technology for manufacturing transistors. And the Czech-born physicist Kurt Lehovek, who worked at Sprague Electric, developed a technique for using a reversed n - p junction to electrically isolate components. In 1959, Robert Noyce, having heard about Kilby's IC layout, decided to try to build an integrated circuit by combining the processes proposed by Horney and Lehovek. And instead of the “hairy technology” of interconnections, Noyce proposed the selective deposition of a thin layer of metal over silicon dioxide-insulated semiconductor structures with connection to the contacts of the elements through the holes left in the insulating layer. This made it possible to “immerse” active elements in the body of a semiconductor, insulating them with silicon oxide, and then connect these elements with sputtered tracks of aluminum or gold, which are created using photolithography, metallization and etching processes at the last stage of product manufacturing. Thus, a truly “monolithic” option for combining components into a single circuit was obtained, and the new technology was called “planar”. But first, the idea had to be tested.

Rice. 4. Experimental trigger R. Noyce. Photo from http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1960-FirstIC.html

Rice. 5. Photo of Micrologic IC in Life magazine. Photo from http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1960-FirstIC.html

In August 1959, R. Noyce instructed Joey Last to work out a variant of the IC based on planar technology. First, like Kilby, they made a trigger layout on several silicon crystals, on which 4 transistors and 5 resistors were made. Then, on May 26, 1960, the first single-chip trigger was manufactured. To isolate the elements in it, deep grooves were etched on the reverse side of the silicon wafer, filled with epoxy resin. On September 27, 1960, the third version of the trigger was made (Fig. 4), in which the elements were isolated by a back-connected p - n junction.

Until that time, Fairchild Semiconductor had dealt only with transistors; it had no circuit engineers to create semiconductor ICs. Therefore, Robert Norman from Sperry Gyroscope was invited as a designer of the circuits. Norman was familiar with resistor-transistor logic, which the company, at his suggestion, chose as the basis for its future Micrologic IC series, which found its first application in the Minuteman rocket equipment. In March 1961, Fairchild announced the first experimental IC of this series (an F-flip-flop containing six elements: four bipolar transistors and two resistors placed on a 1 cm plate) with the publication of its photograph (Fig. 5) in the magazine life(dated March 10, 1961). Another 5 ICs were announced in October. And from the beginning of 1962, Fairchild launched mass production of ICs and their supply also in the interests of the US Department of Defense and NASA.

Kilby and Noyce had to listen to a lot of criticism about their innovations. It was believed that the practical yield of suitable integrated circuits would be very low. It is clear that it should be lower than that of transistors (because it contains several transistors), for which it was then no higher than 15%. Secondly, many believed that integrated circuits used inappropriate materials, since resistors and capacitors were not made from semiconductors at that time. Thirdly, many could not accept the idea of non-repairability of IP. It seemed blasphemous to them to throw away a product in which only one of the many elements failed. All doubts were gradually cast aside when integrated circuits were successfully used in the US military and space programs.

One of the founders of Fairchild Semiconductor, G. Moore, formulated the basic law for the development of silicon microelectronics, according to which the number of transistors in an integrated circuit chip doubled every year. This law, called "Moore's law", operated fairly well for the first 15 years (beginning in 1959), and then this doubling took place in about a year and a half.

Further, the IP industry in the United States began to develop at a rapid pace. In the United States, an avalanche-like process of the emergence of enterprises oriented exclusively “under the planar” began, sometimes reaching the point that a dozen firms were registered per week. In pursuit of veterans (the firms of W. Shockley and R. Noyce), as well as thanks to tax incentives and the service provided by Stanford University, “newcomers” clustered mainly in the Santa Clara Valley (California). Therefore, it is not surprising that in 1971, with the light hand of the journalist and popularizer of technical innovations, Don Hofler, the romantic-technogenic image of “Silicon Valley” entered into circulation, which forever became synonymous with the Mecca of the semiconductor technological revolution. By the way, in that area there really is a valley, previously famous for its numerous apricot, cherry and plum orchards, which had a different, more pleasant name before Shockley appeared in it - the Valley of Heart's Delight, now, unfortunately, almost forgotten.

In 1962, mass production of integrated circuits began in the United States, although their volume of deliveries to customers amounted to only a few thousand. The strongest stimulus for the development of the instrument-making and electronic industries on a new basis was rocket and space technology. The United States did not then have the same powerful intercontinental ballistic missiles as the Soviet ones, and in order to increase the charge, they were forced to go for the maximum reduction in the mass of the carrier, including control systems, through the introduction of the latest advances in electronic technology. Firms Texas Instrument and Fairchild Semiconductor have signed large contracts for the development and manufacture of integrated circuits with the US Department of Defense and with NASA.

The first semiconductor ICs in the USSR

By the end of the 1950s, the Soviet industry needed semiconductor diodes and transistors so much that drastic measures were required. In 1959, semiconductor device factories were founded in Aleksandrov, Bryansk, Voronezh, Riga, etc. In January 1961, the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR adopted another Decree “On the development of the semiconductor industry”, which provided for the construction of factories and research institutes in Kyiv, Minsk, Yerevan, Nalchik and other cities.

We will be interested in one of the new plants - the above-mentioned Riga Semiconductor Plant (RZPP, it changed its name several times, for simplicity, we use the most famous, operating and now). As a launch pad, the new plant was given the building of the cooperative technical school under construction with an area of 5300 m 2, and at the same time the construction of a special building began. By February 1960, 32 services, 11 laboratories and pilot production had already been created at the plant, which began in April to prepare for the production of the first instruments. The plant already employed 350 people, 260 of whom were sent to study at the Moscow Research Institute-35 (later the Pulsar Research Institute) and at the Leningrad Svetlana Plant during the year. And by the end of 1960, the number of employees reached 1900 people. Initially, the technological lines were located in the rebuilt sports hall of the building of the cooperative technical school, and the experimental design bureau laboratories were located in the former classrooms. The first devices (alloy-diffusion and conversion germanium transistors P-401, P-403, P-601 and P-602 developed by NII-35) were produced by the plant 9 months after the signing of the order on its creation, in March 1960. And by the end of July, he produced the first thousand P-401 transistors. Then he mastered many other transistors and diodes in production. In June 1961, the construction of a special building was completed, in which mass production of semiconductor devices began.

Since 1961, the plant began independent technological and development work, including mechanization and automation of the production of transistors based on photolithography. For this, the first domestic photo repeater (photostamp) was developed - an installation for combining and contact photo printing (developed by A.S. Gotman). The enterprises of the Ministry of Radio Industry, including KB-1 (later NPO Almaz, Moscow) and NIIRE, provided great assistance in financing and manufacturing unique equipment. Then the most active developers of small-sized radio equipment, not having their own technological semiconductor base, were looking for ways of creative interaction with the newly created semiconductor factories.

At RZPP, active work was carried out to automate the production of germanium transistors of the P401 and P403 types based on the Ausma production line created by the plant. Its chief designer (GK) A.S. Gotman proposed to make current-carrying tracks on the germanium surface from the transistor electrodes to the periphery of the crystal, in order to more easily weld the transistor leads in the case. But most importantly, these tracks could be used as external terminals of the transistor when they were unpackaged assembled on boards (containing connecting and passive elements), soldering them directly to the corresponding contact pads (in fact, the technology for creating hybrid ICs was proposed). The proposed method, in which the current-carrying paths of the crystal, as it were, kiss the contact pads of the board, received the original name - “kissing technology”. But due to a number of technological problems that turned out to be insoluble at that time, mainly related to the problems of the accuracy of obtaining contacts on a printed circuit board, it was not possible to practically implement the “kissing technology”. A few years later, a similar idea was implemented in the USA and the USSR and found wide application in the so-called “ball leads” and in the “chip-on-board” technology.

Nevertheless, hardware companies cooperating with RZPP, including NIIRE, hoped for the “kissing technology” and planned to use it. In the spring of 1962, when it became clear that its implementation was being postponed indefinitely, NIIRE Chief Engineer V.I. Smirnov asked the director of the RZPP S.A. Bergman to find another way to implement a multi-element circuit of the 2NOT-OR type, universal for building digital devices.

Rice. 7. Equivalent circuit of IS R12-2 (1LB021). Drawing from the IP prospectus from 1965

The first IS and GIS by Yuri Osokin. solid circuit R12-2(IC series 102 and 116 )

The director of the RZPP entrusted this task to a young engineer, Yuri Valentinovich Osokin. We organized a department consisting of a technological laboratory, a laboratory for the development and manufacture of photomasks, a measuring laboratory and a pilot production line. At that time, the technology for manufacturing germanium diodes and transistors was delivered to RZPP, and it was taken as the basis for a new development. And already in the fall of 1962, the first prototypes of the germanium solid circuit 2NE-OR were obtained (since the term IP did not exist then, out of respect for the affairs of those days, we will keep the name “solid circuit” - TS), which received the factory designation “P12-2”. An advertising booklet from 1965 on P12-2 has been preserved (Fig. 6), information and illustrations from which we will use. TS R12-2 contained two germanium p - n - p transistors (modified transistors of the P401 and P403 types) with a total load in the form of a distributed p-type germanium resistor (Fig. 7).

Rice. 8. Structure of IS R12-2. Drawing from the IP prospectus from 1965

Rice. 9. Dimensional drawing of the vehicle R12-2. Drawing from the IP prospectus from 1965

The outer leads are formed by thermocompression welding between the germanium regions of the TC structure and the gold of the lead wires. This ensures stable operation of the circuits under external influences in the conditions of the tropics and sea fog, which is especially important for working in naval quasi-electronic automatic telephone exchanges manufactured by the VEF Riga plant, which is also interested in this development.

Structurally, TS R12-2 (and subsequent R12-5) were made in the form of a “tablet” (Fig. 9) from a round metal cup with a diameter of 3 mm and a height of 0.8 mm. A TS crystal was placed in it and filled with a polymer compound, from which short outer ends of leads made of soft gold wire with a diameter of 50 μm, welded to the crystal, came out. The weight of P12-2 did not exceed 25 mg. In this design, the RHs were resistant to 80% relative humidity at an ambient temperature of 40°C and to temperature cycling from -60° to 60°C.

By the end of 1962, the pilot production of RZPP produced about 5 thousand R12-2 vehicles, and in 1963 several tens of thousands of them were made. Thus, 1962 was the birth year of the microelectronic industry in the USA and the USSR.

Rice. 10. TC R12-2 groups

Rice. 11. Main electrical characteristics of R12-2

Semiconductor technology was then in its infancy and did not yet guarantee strict repeatability of parameters. Therefore, operable devices were sorted into groups of parameters (this is often done in our time). The inhabitants of Riga did the same, installing 8 types of TS R12-2 (Fig. 10). All other electrical and other characteristics are the same for all ratings (Fig. 11).

The production of TS R12-2 began simultaneously with the R&D “Hardness”, which ended in 1964 (GK Yu.V. Osokin). Within the framework of this work, an improved group technology for the serial production of germanium TCs based on photolithography and galvanic deposition of alloys through a photomask was developed. Its main technical solutions are registered as an invention of Osokin Yu.V. and Mikhalovich D.L. (A.S. No. 36845). Several articles by Yu.V. Osokina in collaboration with KB-1 specialists I.V. Nothing, G.G. Smolko and Yu.E. Naumov with a description of the design and characteristics of the R12-2 vehicle (and the subsequent R12-5 vehicle).

The design of the P12-2 was good for everyone, except for one thing - consumers did not know how to use such small products with the thinnest conclusions. Hardware firms, as a rule, had neither the technology nor the equipment for this. For the entire time of the release of R12-2 and R12-5, their use was mastered by NIIRE, the Zhiguli Radio Plant of the Ministry of Radio Industry, VEF, NIIP (since 1978 NPO Radiopribor) and a few other enterprises. Understanding the problem, the developers of the TS, together with NIIRE, immediately thought out the second level of design, which at the same time increased the density of the equipment layout.

Rice. 12. Module of 4 vehicles R12-2

In 1963, within the framework of the R&D “Kvant” (GK A.N. Pelipenko, with the participation of E.M. Lyakhovich), the design of the module was developed in NIIRE, in which four TS R12-2 were combined (Fig. 12). From two to four R12-2 TCs (in a case) were placed on a microboard made of thin fiberglass, which together implement a certain functional unit. Up to 17 leads were pressed onto the board (the number varied for a specific module) 4 mm long. The microplate was placed in a stamped metal cup 21.6 × 10 in size. 6.6 mm and a depth of 3.1 mm and filled with a polymer compound. The result is a hybrid integrated circuit (GIS) with double sealed elements. And, as we said, it was the first GIS in the world with two-level integration, and, perhaps, the first GIS in general. Eight types of modules were developed with the common name "Quantum", which performed various logical functions. As part of such modules, R12-2 vehicles remained operational under the influence of constant accelerations up to 150 g and vibration loads in the frequency range of 5–2000 Hz with acceleration up to 15 g.

The Kvant modules were first produced by the experimental production of NIIRE, and then they were transferred to the Zhiguli Radio Plant of the USSR Ministry of Radio Industry, which supplied them to various consumers, including the VEF plant.

TS R12-2 and Kvant modules based on them have proven themselves well and have been widely used. In 1968, a standard was released that established a unified system of designations for integrated circuits in the country, and in 1969 - General specifications for semiconductor (NP0.073.004TU) and hybrid (NP0.073.003TU) ICs with a unified system of requirements. In accordance with these requirements, the Central Bureau for the Application of Integrated Circuits (TsBPIMS, later the Dayton Central Design Bureau, Zelenograd) on February 6, 1969 approved new technical conditions for the TS ShT3.369.001-1TU. At the same time, the term “integrated circuit” of the 102 series first appeared in the designation of the product. In fact, it was one IC, sorted into four groups by output voltage and load capacity.

Rice. 13. IC series 116 and 117

And on September 19, 1970, the technical specifications AB0.308.014TU for the Kvant modules, which received the designation IS of the 116 series, were approved at TsBPIMS (Fig. 13). The series included nine ICs: 1KhL161, 1KhL162 and 1KhL163 - multifunctional digital circuits; 1LE161 and 1LE162 - two and four logical elements 2NOT-OR; 1TP161 and 1TP1162 - one and two triggers; 1UP161 - power amplifier, as well as 1LP161 - logical element "prohibition" for 4 inputs and 4 outputs. Each of these ICs had from four to seven versions, differing in output signal voltage and load capacity, in total there were 58 IC ratings. Executions were marked with a letter after the digital part of the IC designation, for example, 1ХЛ161Ж. In the future, the range of modules expanded. The ICs of the 116 series were actually hybrid, but at the request of the RZPP they were labeled as semiconductor (the first digit in the designation is “1”, hybrids should have “2”).

In 1972, by a joint decision of the Ministry of Electronic Industry and the Ministry of Radio Industry, the production of modules was transferred from the Zhiguli Radio Plant to RZPP. This eliminated the need to transport the 102-series ICs over long distances, so there was no need to encapsulate the die of each IC. As a result, the design of ICs of both the 102nd and 116th series was simplified: there was no need to package ICs of the 102 series in a metal cup filled with compound. The unpackaged ICs of the 102 series in a technological container were delivered to a neighboring shop for assembly of the ICs of the 116 series, mounted directly on their microboard, and sealed in the module case.

In the mid-1970s, a new standard for the IP notation system was released. After that, for example, IS 1LB021V received the designation 102LB1V.

The second IS and GIS of Yuri Osokin. solid circuit R12-5(IC series 103 and 117 )

By the beginning of 1963, as a result of serious work on the development of high-frequency n - p - n transistors, the team of Yu.V. Osokina accumulated a lot of experience with p-layers on the original n-germanium wafer. This and the availability of all the necessary technological components allowed Osokin in 1963 to start developing a new technology and design for a faster version of the TS. In 1964, by order of NIIRE, the development of the R12-5 TS and modules based on it was completed. Based on its results, in 1965, the Palanga R&D was opened (GK Yu.V. Osokin, his deputy - D.L. Mikhalovich, completed in 1966). Modules based on P12-5 were developed within the framework of the same R&D “Kvant” as modules based on P12-2. Simultaneously with the technical specifications for the 102 and 116 series, the technical specifications ShchT3.369.002-2TU for the 103 series ICs (R12-5) and AV0.308.016TU for the 117 series ICs (modules based on the 103 series ICs) were approved. The nomenclature of types and standard ratings of TS R12-2, modules on them and series IS 102 and 116 was identical to the nomenclature of TS R12-5 and IS series 103 and 117, respectively. They differed only in speed and manufacturing technology of the IC chip. The typical propagation delay time of the 117 series was 55 ns versus 200 ns for the 116 series.

Structurally, the R12-5 TS was a four-layer semiconductor structure (Fig. 14), where the n-type substrate and p + -type emitters were connected to a common ground bus. The main technical solutions for the construction of the R12-5 TS are registered as the invention of Osokin Yu.V., Mikhalovich D.L. Kaidalova Zh.A. and Akmensa Ya.P. (A.S. No. 248847). In the manufacture of the four-layer structure of TS R12-5, an important know-how was the formation of an n-type p-layer in the original germanium plate. This was achieved by diffusion of zinc in a sealed-off quartz ampoule, where the plates are located at a temperature of about 900 ° C, and zinc is located at the other end of the ampoule at a temperature of about 500 ° C. Further formation of the TS structure in the created p-layer is similar to TS R12-2. The new technology made it possible to get away from the complex shape of the TS crystal. Wafers with P12-5 were also ground from the back side to a thickness of about 150 μm with the preservation of part of the original wafer, then they were scribbled into separate rectangular IC crystals.

Rice. 14. Crystal structure of TS P12-5 from AS No. 248847. 1 and 2 - ground, 3 and 4 - inputs, 5 - output, 6 - power

After the first positive results in the manufacture of experimental R12-5 vehicles, by order of KB-1, the Mezon-2 R & D was opened, aimed at creating vehicles with four R12-5s. In 1965, operating samples were obtained in a flat ceramic-metal case. But P12-5 turned out to be difficult to manufacture, mainly due to the difficulty of forming a zinc-doped p-layer on the original n-Ge wafer. The crystal turned out to be labor-intensive to manufacture, the percentage of yield is low, and the cost of the TS is high. For the same reasons, the R12-5 TS was produced in small volumes and could not displace the slower, but technologically advanced R12-2. And R&D “Mezon-2” did not continue at all, including due to interconnection problems.

By that time, Pulsar Research Institute and NIIME were already working on a wide front to develop planar silicon technology, which has a number of advantages over germanium, the main of which is a higher operating temperature range (+150°С for silicon and +70°С for silicon). germanium) and the presence of a natural protective SiO 2 film in silicon. And the specialization of RZPP was reoriented to the creation of analog ICs. Therefore, RZPP specialists considered the development of germanium technology for the production of ICs inappropriate. However, in the production of transistors and diodes, germanium did not give up its positions for some time. In the department of Yu.V. Osokin, already after 1966, RZPP developed and produced germanium planar low-noise microwave transistors GT329, GT341, GT 383, etc. Their creation was awarded the State Prize of the Latvian USSR.

Application

Rice. 15. Arithmetic unit on solid circuit modules. Photo from TS booklet dated 1965

Rice. 16. Comparative dimensions of the automatic telephone exchange control device, made on a relay and a vehicle. Photo from TS booklet dated 1965

The customers and first consumers of the R12-2 TS and modules were the creators of specific systems: the Gnom computer (Fig. 15) for the Kupol airborne system (NIIRE, GK Lyakhovich E.M.) and naval and civil automatic telephone exchanges (plant VEF, GK Misulovin L.Ya.). Actively participated in all stages of the creation of the R12-2, R12-5 vehicles and modules on them and KB-1, the main curator of this cooperation from KB-1 was N.A. Barkanov. They helped with financing, manufacturing of equipment, research of TS and modules in various modes and operating conditions.

TS R12-2 and modules "Quantum" based on it were the first microcircuits in the country. Yes, and in the world they were among the first - only in the USA they began to produce their first semiconductor ICs from Texas Instruments and Fairchild Semiconductor, and in 1964 IBM began producing thick-film hybrid ICs for its computers. In other countries, IP has not yet been thought about. Therefore, integrated circuits were a curiosity for the public, the effectiveness of their application made a striking impression and was played up in advertising. In the surviving booklet on the R12-2 vehicle from 1965 (based on already real applications) it says: “ The use of R12-2 solid circuits in on-board computing devices makes it possible to reduce the weight and dimensions of these devices by a factor of 10–20, reduce power consumption, and increase operational reliability. … The use of R12-2 solid circuits in the control and switching systems of information transmission paths of automatic telephone exchanges makes it possible to reduce the volume of control devices by about 300 times, as well as significantly reduce power consumption (by 30–50 times)” . These statements were illustrated by photographs of the Gnom computer arithmetic unit (Fig. 15) and a comparison of the ATS rack manufactured at that time by the VEF plant based on a relay with a small block in the girl’s palm (Fig. 16). There were other numerous applications of the first Riga ICs.

Production

Now it is difficult to restore a complete picture of the production volumes of series 102 and 103 ICs over the years (today RZPP has turned from a large plant into a small production and many archives have been lost). But according to the memoirs of Yu.V. Osokin, in the second half of the 1960s, production amounted to many hundreds of thousands a year, in the 1970s - millions. According to his personal records, in 1985, ICs of the 102 series were issued - 4,100,000 pieces, modules of the 116 series - 1,025,000 pieces, ICs of the 103 series - 700,000 pieces, modules of the 117 series - 175,000 pieces.

At the end of 1989 Yu.V. Osokin, then the general director of the Alfa software, turned to the leadership of the Military-Industrial Commission under the Council of Ministers of the USSR (VPK) with a request to remove series 102, 103, 116 and 117 from production due to their obsolescence and high labor intensity (for 25 years, microelectronics is far from went ahead), but received a categorical refusal. Deputy Chairman of the Military Industrial Complex V.L. Koblov told him that the planes were flying reliably and a replacement was out of the question. After the collapse of the USSR, ICs of the 102, 103, 116 and 117 series were produced even before the mid-1990s, that is, for more than 30 years. Computers "Gnome" are still in the navigation cockpit of "Il-76" and some other aircraft. “This is a supercomputer,” our pilots are not lost when their foreign colleagues are surprised to be interested in a unit that has never been seen before.

About priorities

Despite the fact that J. Kilby and R. Noyce had predecessors, they are recognized by the world community as the inventors of the integrated circuit.

R. Kilby and J. Noyce, through their firms, applied for a patent for the invention of the integrated circuit. Texas Instruments applied for the patent earlier, in February 1959, while Fairchild did so only in July of that year. But patent number 2981877 was issued in April 1961 to R. Noyce. J. Kilby sued and only in June 1964 received his patent number 3138743. Then there was a ten-year war on priorities, as a result of which (rare) "friendship won." Ultimately, the Court of Appeal upheld R. Noyce's claim to primacy in technology, but ruled that J. Kilby was the creator of the first working microchip. And Texas Instruments and Fairchild Semiconductor signed a technology cross-licensing agreement.

In the USSR, patenting inventions for authors did not give anything but trouble, an insignificant one-time payment and moral satisfaction, so many inventions were not formalized at all. And Osokin was in no hurry either. But for enterprises, the number of inventions was one of the indicators, so they still had to be registered. Therefore, Yu. Osokina and D. Mikhalovich received the USSR Author's Certificate No. 36845 for the invention of the TS R12-2 only on June 28, 1966.

And J. Kilby in 2000 became one of the Nobel Prize winners for the invention of IP. R. Noyce did not wait for world recognition, he died in 1990, and according to the situation, the Nobel Prize is not awarded posthumously. Which, in this case, is not entirely fair, since all microelectronics followed the path started by R. Noyce. Noyce's authority among specialists was so high that he even received the nickname "mayor of Silicon Valley", because he was then the most popular of the scientists working in that part of California, which received the unofficial name of Silicon Valley (W. Shockley was called "Moses of Silicon Valley") . And the path of J. Kilby (“hairy” germanium) turned out to be a dead end, and was not implemented even in his company. But life is not always fair.

The Nobel Prize was awarded to three scientists. Half of it was received by 77-year-old Jack Kilby, and the other half was divided between Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences Zhores Alferov and Professor of the University of California at Santa Barbara, American of German origin Herbert Kremer, for "the development of semiconductor heterostructures used in high-speed optoelectronics."

Evaluating these works, the experts noted that "integrated circuits are, of course, the discovery of the century, which had a strong impact on society and the world economy." For the forgotten J. Kilby, the Nobel Prize was a surprise. In an interview with a magazine Europhysics News He admitted: " At that time, I was only thinking about what would be important for the development of electronics from an economic point of view. But I did not understand then that the decrease in the cost of electronic products will cause an avalanche growth of electronic technologies”.

And the work of Yu. Osokin was not evaluated not only by the Nobel Committee. They are also forgotten in our country, the country's priority in the creation of microelectronics is not protected. And he certainly was.

In the 1950s, a material basis was created for the formation of multi-element products - integrated circuits - in one monolithic crystal or on one ceramic substrate. Therefore, it is not surprising that almost simultaneously the idea of IP independently emerged in the minds of many specialists. And the speed of introducing a new idea depended on the technological capabilities of the author and the interest of the manufacturer, that is, on the presence of the first consumer. In this regard, Yu. Osokin was in a better position than his American colleagues. Kilby was new to TI, he even had to prove to the company's management the fundamental possibility of implementing a monolithic circuit by making its layout. Actually, the role of J. Kilby in the creation of IS comes down to re-educating the leadership of TI and provoking R. Noyce with his layout to take action. Kilby's invention did not go into serial production. R. Noyce, in his young and not yet strong company, went to the creation of a new planar technology, which really became the basis of subsequent microelectronics, but the author did not immediately succumb. In connection with the foregoing, both of them and their firms had to spend a lot of effort and time for the practical implementation of their ideas for building serially capable ICs. Their first samples remained experimental, and other microcircuits, not even developed by them, went into mass production. Unlike Kilby and Noyce, who were far from production, factory worker Yu. Osokin relied on the industrially developed semiconductor technologies of RZPP, and he had guaranteed consumers of the first TS in the form of the initiator of the development of NIIRE and the nearby VEF plant, which helped in this work. For these reasons, the first version of his vehicle immediately went into experimental, smoothly transferred into mass production, which continued continuously for more than 30 years. Thus, starting the development of the TS later than Kilby and Noyce, Yu. Osokin (not knowing about this competition) quickly caught up with them. Moreover, the work of Yu. Osokin is in no way connected with the work of the Americans, evidence of this is the absolute dissimilarity of his TS and the solutions implemented in it to Kilby and Noyce microcircuits. Texas Instruments (not Kilby's invention), Fairchild, and RZPP began production of their ICs almost simultaneously, in 1962. This gives full right to consider Yu. Osokin as one of the inventors of the integrated circuit on a par with R. Noyce and more than J. Kilby, and it would be fair to share part of the Nobel Prize of J. Kilby with Yu. Osokin. As for the invention of the first GIS with two-level integration (and possibly GIS in general), here the priority is A. Pelipenko from NIIRE is absolutely indisputable.

Unfortunately, it was not possible to find samples of TS and devices based on them, necessary for museums. The author will be very grateful for such samples or their photographs.

Name the first computing device. Abacus Calculator Arithmometer Russian abacus What idea did you put forward in the middle

19th century English mathematician Charles Babbage?

The idea of creating a program-controlled calculating machine with an arithmetic device, a control device, as well as an input and printing device

The idea of creating a cell phone

The idea of creating robots controlled by a computer

In what year and where was the first computer based on vacuum tubes created?

1945, USA

1944 England

1946 France

On what basis were third-generation computers created?

integrated circuits

semiconductors

electronic lamps

very large integrated circuits

What was the name of the first personal computer?

Name the central unit of the computer.

CPU

System unit

Power Supply

Motherboard

The processor processes the information provided:

In decimal number system

In English

In Russian

Machine language (binary)

To enter numerical and textual information, use

Keyboard

The scanner is used for...

To enter images and text documents into a computer

For drawing on it with a special pen

Moving the cursor on the monitor screen

Obtaining holographic images

10. What type of printer is appropriate for printing financial documents?

Matrix printer

Jet printer

Laser printer

What type of printer should be used to print abstracts?

Matrix printer

Jet printer

Laser printer

What type of printer is appropriate for printing photos?

Matrix printer

Jet printer

Laser printer

If the sanitary and hygienic requirements of the computer are not observed, a harmful effect on human health can have ...

Monitor on cathode ray tube

Liquid crystal monitor

Plasma panels

When you turn off the computer, all information is erased from ...

Random access memory

hard drive

laser disc

What computer device stores information?

External memory;

CPU;

Optical tracks are thinner and more tightly packed on...

Digital video disc (DVD disc)

Compact disc (CD-disk)

Input devices include...

Output devices include...

Keyboard, mouse, joystick, light pen, scanner, digital camera, microphone

Speakers, monitor, printer, earpiece

Hard disk, processor, memory modules, motherboard, floppy disk

The program is called...

A computer program can control the operation of a computer if it is located ...

In RAM

On a floppy disk

On hard drive

On CD

Data is...

The sequence of commands that a computer executes in the process of processing data

Information presented in digital form and processed on a computer

Named data stored in long-term memory

The file is...

Computer printed text

Information presented in digital form and processed on a computer

A program or data that has a name and is stored in long-term memory

When quick formatting a floppy disk...

Disk directory cleanup in progress

All data is erased

Disk defragmentation in progress

Checking the disk surface

When fully formatting a floppy disk...

all data is erased

full disk check

disk directory is being cleaned up

disk becomes system

In a multi-level hierarchical file system...

Files are stored in a system that is a system of nested folders

Files are stored in a system that is a linear sequence

The history of the development of computing technology:

1. Name the first computing device.
1) Abacus
2) Calculator
3) Arithmometer
4) Russian abacus

2. What idea was put forward in the middle of the 19th century by the English mathematician Charles Babbage?
1) The idea of creating a program-controlled calculating machine with an arithmetic device, a control device, as well as an input and printing device
2) The idea of creating a cell phone
3) The idea of creating computer-controlled robots
3. Name the first computer programmer.
1) Ada Lovelace
2) Sergei Lebedev
3) Bill Gates
4) Sofia Kovalevskaya

4. In what year and where was the first computer based on vacuum tubes created?
1) 1945, USA
2) 1950, USSR
3) 1944, England
4) 1946, France

5. On what basis were third-generation computers created?
1) Integrated circuits
2) semiconductors
3) electronic lamps
4) very large integrated circuits

6. What was the name of the first personal computer?
1) Apple II
2) IBM PC
3) Dell
4) Corvette
Computer structure ........................15
1. Name the central device of the computer.
1) Processor
2) System block
3) Power supply
4) Motherboard
2. How is physical information recorded and transmitted to a computer?
1) numbers;
2) with the help of programs;
3) is presented in the form of electrical signals.

3. The processor processes the information provided:
1) In decimal number system
2) In English
3) In Russian
4) In machine language (in binary code)
4. To enter numerical and textual information, use
1) Keyboard
2) Mouse
3) Trackball
4) Handle
5. The most important characteristic of coordinate input devices is the resolution, which is usually 500 dpi (dot per inch - dots per inch (1 inch = 2.54 cm)), which means ...
1) When moving the mouse one inch, the mouse pointer moves 500 points
2) When moving the mouse 500 points, the mouse pointer moves one inch
6. The scanner is used for…
1) To enter images and text documents into a computer
2) For drawing on it with a special pen
3) Moving the cursor on the monitor screen
4) Obtaining holographic images
Output Devices .................................21
1. What type of printer is appropriate for printing financial documents?
1) Dot matrix printer
2) Inkjet printer
3) Laser printer
2. What type of printer should be used to print abstracts?
1) Dot matrix printer
2) Inkjet printer
3) Laser printer

1. What type of printer is appropriate for printing photos?
1) Dot matrix printer
2) Inkjet printer
3) Laser printer
2. If the sanitary and hygienic requirements of the computer are not observed, a harmful effect on human health can have ...
1) Monitor on cathode ray tube
2) Liquid crystal monitor
4) Plasma panels
3. A device that provides recording and reading information is called ...
1) Floppy drive or storage

4. When you turn off the computer, all information is erased from ...
4) RAM
5) Hard drive
6) Laser disc
7) Diskettes
13. In what device of the computer is information stored?
1) External memory;
2) monitor;
3) processor;
2. Optical tracks are thinner and placed more densely on...
1) Digital video disc (DVD disc)
2) Compact disc (CD - disc)
3) Floppy disk
3. On which disk information is stored on concentric tracks, on which magnetized and non-magnetized sections alternate
1) On a floppy disk
2) On CD
3) On a DVD disc

4. Input devices include…

1) Hard disk, processor, memory modules, motherboard, floppy disk
5. Output devices include…
1) Keyboard, mouse, joystick, light pen, scanner, digital camera, microphone
2) Speakers, monitor, printer, earphone
3) Hard disk, processor, memory modules, motherboard, floppy disk
6. The program is called ...

7. A computer program can control the operation of a computer if it is located ...
1) In RAM
2) On a floppy disk
3) On the hard drive
4) On a CD
8. Data is...
1) The sequence of commands that the computer executes in the process of processing data
2) Information presented in digital form and processed on a computer
3) Named data stored in long-term memory
9. File is...
1) Text printed on a computer
2) Information presented in digital form and processed on a computer
3) A program or data that has a name and is stored in long-term memory

10. When quick formatting a floppy disk...
1) The disk directory is being cleaned
2) All data is erased
3) The disk is being defragmented
4) Checking is carried out according to

1. When and by whom were perforating machines invented? What tasks did they solve?

2. What is an electromechanical relay? When were relay computers created? How fast were they?
3. Where and when was the first computer built? What was her name?
4. What is the role of John von Neumann in the creation of computers?
5. Who was the designer of the first domestic computers?
6. On what element base were the first generation machines created? What were their main characteristics?
7. On what element base were the second generation machines created? What are their advantages compared to the first generation of computers?
8. What is an integrated circuit? When were the first integrated circuit computers created? What were they called?
9. What new areas of application of computers have emerged with the advent of third-generation machines?

Name the first computing device. Abacus Calculator Arithmometer Russian abacus What idea did you put forward in the middle

19th century English mathematician Charles Babbage?

The idea of creating a program-controlled calculating machine with an arithmetic device, a control device, as well as an input and printing device

The idea of creating a cell phone

The idea of creating robots controlled by a computer

In what year and where was the first computer based on vacuum tubes created?

1945, USA

1944 England

1946 France

On what basis were third-generation computers created?

integrated circuits

semiconductors

electronic lamps

very large integrated circuits

What was the name of the first personal computer?

Name the central unit of the computer.

CPU

System unit

Power Supply

Motherboard

The processor processes the information provided:

In decimal number system

In English

In Russian

Machine language (binary)

To enter numerical and textual information, use

Keyboard

The scanner is used for...

To enter images and text documents into a computer

For drawing on it with a special pen

Moving the cursor on the monitor screen

Obtaining holographic images

10. What type of printer is appropriate for printing financial documents?

Matrix printer

Jet printer

Laser printer

What type of printer should be used to print abstracts?

Matrix printer

Jet printer

Laser printer

What type of printer is appropriate for printing photos?

Matrix printer

Jet printer

Laser printer

If the sanitary and hygienic requirements of the computer are not observed, a harmful effect on human health can have ...

Monitor on cathode ray tube

Liquid crystal monitor

Plasma panels

When you turn off the computer, all information is erased from ...

Random access memory

hard drive

laser disc

What computer device stores information?

External memory;

CPU;

Optical tracks are thinner and more tightly packed on...

Digital video disc (DVD disc)

Compact disc (CD-disk)

Input devices include...

Output devices include...

Keyboard, mouse, joystick, light pen, scanner, digital camera, microphone

Speakers, monitor, printer, earpiece

Hard disk, processor, memory modules, motherboard, floppy disk

The program is called...

A computer program can control the operation of a computer if it is located ...

In RAM

On a floppy disk

On hard drive

On CD

Data is...

The sequence of commands that a computer executes in the process of processing data

Information presented in digital form and processed on a computer

Named data stored in long-term memory

The file is...

Computer printed text

Information presented in digital form and processed on a computer

A program or data that has a name and is stored in long-term memory

When quick formatting a floppy disk...

Disk directory cleanup in progress

All data is erased

Disk defragmentation in progress

Checking the disk surface

When fully formatting a floppy disk...

all data is erased

full disk check

disk directory is being cleaned up

disk becomes system

In a multi-level hierarchical file system...

Files are stored in a system that is a system of nested folders

Files are stored in a system that is a linear sequence

The history of the development of computing technology:

1. Name the first computing device.
1) Abacus
2) Calculator
3) Arithmometer
4) Russian abacus

4. In what year and where was the first computer based on vacuum tubes created?
1) 1945, USA
2) 1950, USSR
3) 1944, England
4) 1946, France

5. On what basis were third-generation computers created?
1) Integrated circuits
2) semiconductors
3) electronic lamps
4) very large integrated circuits

10. When quick formatting a floppy disk...
1) The disk directory is being cleaned
2) All data is erased
3) The disk is being defragmented
4) Checking is carried out according to

1. When and by whom were perforating machines invented? What tasks did they solve?

) first put forward the idea of combining many standard electronic components in a monolithic semiconductor crystal. The implementation of these proposals in those years could not take place due to insufficient development of technology.

At the end of 1958 and in the first half of 1959, a breakthrough took place in the semiconductor industry. Three people representing three private American corporations solved three fundamental problems that prevented the creation of integrated circuits. Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments patented the principle of unification, created the first, imperfect, IS prototypes and brought them to mass production. Kurt Legovets from Sprague Electric Company invented a method of electrical isolation of components formed on a single semiconductor chip (isolation by a p-n junction (eng. P–n junction isolation)). Robert Noyce from Fairchild Semiconductor invented a method of electrically connecting IC components (aluminum plating) and proposed an improved version of the isolation of components based on the latest planar technology by Jean Ernie (Eng. Jean Hoerni). September 27, 1960 Jay Last's band Jay Last) created on Fairchild Semiconductor first working semiconductor IP on the ideas of Noyce and Ernie. Texas Instruments, which owned the patent for Kilby's invention, unleashed a patent war against competitors that ended in 1966 with a worldwide technology cross-licensing agreement.

The early logic ICs of the mentioned series were built literally from standard components, the dimensions and configurations of which were specified by the technological process. Circuit engineers who designed logic ICs of a particular family operated with the same typical diodes and transistors. In 1961-1962 the design paradigm was broken by the lead developer Sylvania Tom Longo, for the first time using various configuration of transistors depending on their functions in the circuit. At the end of 1962 Sylvania launched the first family of transistor-transistor logic (TTL) developed by Longo - historically the first type of integrated logic that managed to gain a foothold in the market for a long time. In analog circuitry, a breakthrough of this level was made in 1964-1965 by the developer of operational amplifiers Fairchild Bob Vidlar.

The first in the USSR hybrid thick-film integrated circuit (series 201 "Tropa") was developed in 1963-65 at the Research Institute of Precision Technology ("Angstrem"), serial production since 1965. Specialists from NIEM (now NII Argon) took part in the development.

The first semiconductor integrated circuit in the USSR was created on the basis of planar technology, developed at the beginning of 1960 at NII-35 (then renamed NII Pulsar) by a team, which was later transferred to NIIME (Mikron). The creation of the first domestic silicon integrated circuit was focused on the development and production with military acceptance of a series of integrated silicon circuits TC-100 (37 elements - the equivalent of the circuit complexity of a flip-flop, an analogue of the American IC series SN-51 firms Texas Instruments). Prototypes and production samples of silicon integrated circuits for reproduction were obtained from the USA. The work was carried out at NII-35 (director Trutko) and the Fryazinsky semiconductor plant (director Kolmogorov) under a defense order for use in an autonomous altimeter of a ballistic missile guidance system. The development included six typical integrated silicon planar circuits of the TS-100 series and, with the organization of pilot production, took three years at NII-35 (from 1962 to 1965). It took another two years to master factory production with military acceptance in Fryazino (1967).

In parallel, work on the development of an integrated circuit was carried out at the Central Design Bureau at the Voronezh Plant of Semiconductor Devices (now -). In 1965, during a visit to the VZPP by the Minister of Electronic Industry A.I. Shokin, the plant was instructed to carry out research work on the creation of a silicon monolithic circuit - R & D "Titan" (Ministry Order No. 92 dated August 16, 1965), which was ahead of schedule completed by the end of the year. The topic was successfully submitted to the State Commission, and a series of 104 diode-transistor logic circuits became the first fixed achievement in the field of solid-state microelectronics, which was reflected in the order of the Ministry of Economic Development of December 30, 1965 No. 403.

Design levels

Currently (2014), most of the integrated circuits are designed using specialized CAD systems, which allow you to automate and significantly speed up production processes, for example, obtaining topological photomasks.

Classification

Degree of integration

Depending on the degree of integration, the following names of integrated circuits are used:

small integrated circuit (MIS) - up to 100 elements in a crystal,
medium integrated circuit (SIS) - up to 1000 elements in a crystal,
large integrated circuit (LSI) - up to 10 thousand elements in a crystal,
very large integrated circuit (VLSI) - more than 10 thousand elements in a crystal.

Previously, now obsolete names were also used: an ultra-large-scale integrated circuit (ULSI) - from 1-10 million to 1 billion elements in a crystal and, sometimes, a giga-large integrated circuit (GBIS) - more than 1 billion elements in a crystal. At present, in the 2010s, the names "UBIS" and "GBIS" are practically not used, and all microcircuits with more than 10 thousand elements are classified as VLSI.

Manufacturing technology

Semiconductor microcircuit - all elements and interconnections are made on a single semiconductor crystal (for example, silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide, hafnium oxide).

Film integrated circuit - all elements and interconnections are made in the form of films:
- thick-film integrated circuit;
- thin film integrated circuit.
Hybrid IC (often referred to as microassembly), contains several bare diodes, bare transistors and/or other electronic active components. The microassembly may also include unpackaged integrated circuits. Passive microassembly components (resistors, capacitors, inductors) are usually fabricated using thin-film or thick-film technologies on a common, usually ceramic substrate of the hybrid microcircuit. The entire substrate with components is placed in a single hermetically sealed case.
Mixed microcircuit - in addition to a semiconductor crystal, it contains thin-film (thick-film) passive elements placed on the surface of the crystal.

Type of processed signal

Manufacturing technologies

Logic types

The main element of analog circuits are transistors (bipolar or field). The difference in transistor manufacturing technology significantly affects the characteristics of microcircuits. Therefore, the manufacturing technology is often indicated in the description of the microcircuit in order to emphasize the general characteristics of the properties and capabilities of the microcircuit. Modern technologies combine bipolar and field-effect transistor technologies to achieve improved chip performance.

Microcircuits on unipolar (field) transistors are the most economical (in terms of current consumption):
- MOS logic (metal-oxide-semiconductor logic) - microcircuits are formed from field-effect transistors n-MOS or p-MOS type;
- CMOS logic (complementary MOS logic) - each logical element of the microcircuit consists of a pair of complementary (complementary) field effect transistors ( n-MOS and p-MOS).
Chips on bipolar transistors:
- RTL - resistor-transistor logic (obsolete, replaced by TTL);
- DTL - diode-transistor logic (obsolete, replaced by TTL);
- TTL - transistor-transistor logic - microcircuits are made of bipolar transistors with multi-emitter transistors at the input;
- TTLSH - transistor-transistor logic with Schottky diodes - an improved TTL that uses bipolar transistors with the Schottky effect;
- ESL - emitter-coupled logic - on bipolar transistors, the operating mode of which is chosen so that they do not enter saturation mode, which significantly increases speed;
- IIL - integral-injection logic.
Microcircuits using both field-effect and bipolar transistors:

Using the same type of transistors, microcircuits can be built using different methodologies, such as static or dynamic. CMOS and TTL (TTLS) technologies are the most common chip logics. Where it is necessary to save current consumption, CMOS technology is used, where speed is more important and saving power consumption is not required, TTL technology is used. The weak point of CMOS microcircuits is the vulnerability to static electricity - it is enough to touch the output of the microcircuit with your hand, and its integrity is no longer guaranteed. With the development of TTL and CMOS technologies, microcircuits are approaching in terms of parameters and, as a result, for example, the 1564 series of microcircuits is made using CMOS technology, and the functionality and placement in the package are similar to those of TTL technology.

Chips manufactured using ESL technology are the fastest, but also the most energy-consuming, and were used in the production of computer technology in cases where the most important parameter was the speed of calculation. In the USSR, the most productive computers of the ES106x type were manufactured on ESL microcircuits. Now this technology is rarely used.

Technological process

In the manufacture of microcircuits, the method of photolithography (projection, contact, etc.) is used, while the circuit is formed on a substrate (usually silicon) obtained by cutting silicon single crystals into thin wafers with diamond disks. Due to the smallness of the linear dimensions of microcircuit elements, the use of visible light and even near ultraviolet radiation for illumination was abandoned.

The following processors were fabricated using UV radiation (ArF excimer laser, wavelength 193 nm). On average, the introduction of new technical processes by industry leaders according to the ITRS plan took place every 2 years, while doubling the number of transistors per unit area: 45 nm (2007), 32 nm (2009), 22 nm (2011), 14 nm production started in 2014 , the development of 10 nm processes is expected around 2018.

In 2015, there were estimates that the introduction of new technical processes will slow down.

Quality control

To control the quality of integrated circuits, the so-called test structures are widely used.

Purpose

An integrated circuit can have a complete, arbitrarily complex functionality - up to a whole microcomputer (single-chip microcomputer).

Analog Circuits

Filters (including those based on the piezoelectric effect).
Analog multipliers.
Analog Attenuators and Variable Amplifiers.
Power supply stabilizers: voltage and current stabilizers.
Control microcircuits of switching power supplies.
Signal converters.
Synchronization schemes.
Various sensors (eg temperature).

Digital Circuits

Buffer converters
(Micro)processors (including CPUs for computers)
Chips and memory modules
FPGA (Programmable Logic Integrated Circuits)

Digital integrated circuits have a number of advantages over analog ones:

Reduced power consumption associated with the use of pulsed electrical signals in digital electronics. When receiving and converting such signals, the active elements of electronic devices (transistors) operate in the "key" mode, that is, the transistor is either "open" - which corresponds to a high level signal (1), or "closed" - (0), in the first case on there is no voltage drop in the transistor, in the second - no current flows through it. In both cases, the power consumption is close to 0, in contrast to analog devices, in which the transistors are in an intermediate (active) state most of the time.
High noise immunity digital devices is associated with a large difference between high (for example, 2.5-5 V) and low (0-0.5 V) level signals. A state error is possible at such a level of interference that a high level is interpreted as a low level and vice versa, which is unlikely. In addition, in digital devices, it is possible to use special codes that allow you to correct errors.
A large difference in the levels of the states of high and low level signals (logical "0" and "1") and a fairly wide range of their allowable changes makes digital technology insensitive to the inevitable spread of element parameters in integrated technology, eliminates the need to select components and adjust the adjustment elements in digital devices.

Analog-to-digital circuits

digital-to-analog (DAC) and analog-to-digital converters (ADC);
transceivers (for example, an interface converter ethernet);
modulators and demodulators;
- radio modems
- teletext decoders, VHF radio text
- Fast Ethernet and optical line transceivers
- dial-up modems
- digital TV receivers
- optical mouse sensor
power supply chips for electronic devices - stabilizers, voltage converters, power switches, etc.;
digital attenuators;
phase locked loop frequency (PLL) circuits;
clock generators and restorers;
basic matrix chips (BMC): contains both analog and digital circuits;

Chip series

Analog and digital microcircuits are produced in series. A series is a group of microcircuits that have a single design and technological design and are intended for joint use. Microcircuits of the same series, as a rule, have the same voltages of power supplies, are matched in terms of input and output resistances, signal levels.

Corps

Specific titles

The microprocessor forms the core of the computer, additional functions, such as communication with peripherals, were performed using specially designed chipsets (chipset). For the first computers, the number of chips in the sets was estimated at tens and hundreds; in modern systems, this is a set of one, two, or three chips. Recently, there have been trends of gradual transfer of chipset functions (memory controller, bus controller PCI Express) to the processor.