Scientists believe that there are several periods in the development of Russian historical song: historical songs of the early period, songs of the 16th century, songs of the early 17th century, songs that appeared from the 20s of the 17th century to the beginning of the 18th century, songs of the 18th - early 19th centuries and songs later - after the Patriotic War of 1812.

Themes and heroes. XVI century

The historical songs of the 16th century not only reflected the idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land, but also embodied the popular idea of ​​the personality of the tsar. A large cycle of songs is dedicated to the reign of Ivan the Terrible. The most striking song of this cycle is "The Taking of the Kazan Kingdom". Her hero is not a hero. but an ordinary soldier, a gunner, who firmly believes in victory and is not afraid to appear before the king and say truthful words.

You are great, sir-prince of Moscow!
Do not lead us gunners 1, execute:
That in the wind the candle burns faster,
And in the ground, the candle goes quieter.

Many historical songs were dedicated to the capture of Kazan, and this testifies to the diversity of the people's perception of this event by the people. It is important that these songs psychologically reliably recreate the image of Ivan the Terrible - a strong and unforgiving political figure, merciless to any traitor.

And at the same time, Grozny is characterized as a loving father who does not find rest after the murder of his own son, mourning for him. It is the transfer of a special emotional state, the image of the hero's experiences, his inner world that distinguishes the historical song from the epic.

Ivan the Terrible prays for his son

Oh yes, our Orthodox tsar is going
Yes, he is for matins,
To that light, light-light
Ivan the Great 2.
Oh yes, how is our Orthodox tsar becoming
At the right kliros.
Oh yes, how our Orthodox tsar prays,
He bows low.
Oh yes, how are all the boyars-princes behind him?
They stopped
They both grinned at themselves,
The princes grinned.
Oh yeah, how angry the Orthodox tsar is at them
Yes, he looks around:
“And something for which you, boyars-princes,
Why are they painfully happy?
Eh yes, or you don’t know, or you don’t know
Great grief?
To know, you do not know something kruchinushka
Tsar's hopeless!
Oh yes, how the local candle went out,
A star has rolled
My sky is bright little star -
The young tsarevich is gone. "

Another major cycle of this period was the historical songs about Yermak. They reflect the striving of the Cossacks for a free life, the attitude of the tsar to the Cossacks as to robbers; depicts Ermak's campaigns to Siberia. It is a known historical fact that Grozny received envoys from Yermak after his victory over Kuchum's army. This episode is reflected in the song. Ermak, who arrived at the tsar, blames the tsar and says:

And now, hope is the Orthodox tsar,
I bring you a riotous little head,
And with a wild little head, the kingdom of Siberia!

In historical songs, Ermak is a folk hero who must be reckoned with by everyone, even the tsar-father - this is the meaning of these songs. In historical songs of the 16th century, in comparison with early historical songs, elements of lyricism, penetration into the psychology of the hero are used more widely.

Themes and heroes. XVII century. Crying song

In the 17th century, important events for Russia took place. They were associated with the peasant uprising led by Ivan Bolotnikov (1606-1607), with the struggle with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania for Smolensk and the annexation of Smolensk to the Russian state, with the emergence of the impostor Grishka Otrepiev, with the policy of the Russian Tsar Boris Godunov.

Historical songs of this period more and more tend not only to convey the event side of phenomena, but also to penetrate into the character of the hero, to psychologism.

In the 17th century, the crying song became a popular historical song. An example is "Lament of Ksenia" (Ksenia is the daughter of Boris Godunov), in which lyrical lamentations are woven into the historical basis of the event:

The splitter is a small bird,
white ashtray:
“Oh, hug me, young, grieve!
They want to light an oak with a sire,
ruin my nest,
my little children are beaten,
me, ashtray, take it. "
Splatchetza in Moscow Princess:
"Oh, hug me, young, grieve,
that a traitor is going to Moscow,
ino Grisha Otrepiev Rostriga,
that he wants to fill me
and after filling me up, he wants a storyline,
put the Chernensky rank! 3
Ino doesn't want me to get a haircut,
Chernensky rank do not hold:
open the cell will be dark,
look at the good hammers.
Ino, oh dear our transitions! 4
and who will follow you
after our royal life
and after Boris Godunov?
Ah, our dear mansions!
and who will be in you and gray
after our royal life
and after Boris Godunov? "

The history of the crying song genre began with this song; this happened most likely in 1605 in the period from April 13 (the day of Boris Godunov's death) to June 20 (the day False Dmitry I entered Moscow). The song was recorded in the years 1619-1620. During the capture of Moscow by False Dmitry I, her mother and brother Fyodor were killed in front of the princess. The beautiful Xenia was forcibly made the concubine of the impostor, and then tonsured into a nun.

In the songs of this time Grishka Otrepiev is condemned, the archers, the defenders of the Fatherland, are praised. The feat of Kuzma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky, who organized the people's militia and defeated False Dmitry and the Polish invaders, is glorified in historical songs.

Songs about Stepan Razin.
20s of the XVII - the beginning of the XVIII century

A large number of historical songs were created in the period after the 1720s - until the beginning of the 18th century. Many of them are dedicated to Stepan Razin, who is praised in songs as a strong chieftain, a free and independent man. The songs about Stepan Razin, in contrast to the historical songs of the previous periods, become shorter, swift and lyrical. Razin in historical songs is endowed with exceptional qualities: the ability to magic, heroic strength and wonderful invulnerability. About this he speaks to the soldiers sent against him:

Bullet powder, friends, do not waste!
Your guns won't take me
Rifle crayons won't pop.
Nikovo, Stenka Razin, I'm not afraid,
Brothers, I'm not afraid ...

Razin refers to the soldiers not as enemies, calls them "friends", "brothers." Here it is not so much the folk tradition of addressing the soldiers as the understanding of the song's creators that the soldiers do not do their will.

The idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land is reflected in numerous songs about Smolensk, and it is interesting that some of them originated and were recorded in the northern land, in the former Olonets province.

The activities of Peter I are widely reflected in historical songs. His military valor are glorified in songs about the capture of Azov. It is significant that these dogs have numerous variants - evidence of their wide distribution and existence among the people.

Soldier's songs. XVIII-XIX centuries

At the beginning of the 18th century, soldiers' songs were most popular. This is connected with the massacre of Peter with the archers, and with the wars that were fought in the Peter's era. Judging by the numerous details that convey the details of everyday life, equipment and uniforms, the specific characteristics of the battle order, the soldiers themselves were the authors of the songs. Since the 18th century, the soldier's song has become the main historical song in Russia. It will reflect the victory of Russian weapons at Shlisselburg, Revel, Riga, Poltava in the Peter the Great era and the victory over Napoleon during the Patriotic War of 1812. The characters of these songs will be Suvorov and Potemkin, Kutuzov and Platov.

"Stories of Living Voices"

In times of history, the historical song was characterized by a special publicistic tone, which made it possible to poetically accurately and colorfully express the attitude of the creators and performers to the events reflected in the songs. Favorite heroes of song historical folklore were the people's defenders, independent and courageous people, fighters for justice and truth. In the songs, the spirit of the era was conveyed quite accurately and artistically in a peculiar way, an assessment was given to many real events and facts, characteristic details of historical events. That is why the folklore historical song later attracted many writers and was developed in the literary historical song.

The researcher of the historical song L.I. Yemelyanov wrote: “We often say that a folk historical song is the key to understanding history. This is, of course, so. But not in the (or rather, not only in the) sense that she has preserved many information, facts, details that are not reflected in written sources. It is difficult to study history from historical songs, as well as from epics. But in these songs something is reflected, embodied that cannot be replaced by any, even the most detailed historical descriptions. The time itself lives in the songs, which gave birth to them, a real, living person, a contemporary of Ivan the Terrible and Peter I, Stepan Razin and Suvorov, a person of the Time of Troubles and 1812, the Azov campaigns and peasant wars. Events, facts, details scattered here and there in the songs, perhaps, say little to our memory, our knowledge, but a person, their contemporary and their author, his worldview, his outlook, the structure of his thoughts and feelings - all this, embodied in song with amazing artistic power, will powerfully take us into his time, into his life and tell us about many things, about infinitely many things. This is the secret of the folk historical song ”.

Questions and tasks

1. What is the main difference between a historical song and a chronicle?
2. If a historical song is not a documentary reproduction of facts, then what is it, what is its meaning?
3. Review the definition of "conflict" in the literary work. What is the basis of the conflict in historical songs?
4. Determine the difference between a historical song and an epic.
5. When did you start recording and scientifically processing historical songs? Tell us about the first folklorists.
6. What are the main periods of the creation of historical songs? What characterizes each period and what is the peculiarity of the songs created in different eras?
7. What are the genres of folk songs known to you?

1 Gunner (gunner) - gunner, soldier in the artillery of the Russian and some other armies.

2 Ivan the Great - the Kremlin bell tower, colloquially called Ivan the Great (the Church of John Climacus under the Bells).

3 ... Post-ritchi, the Chernensky rite to put - to tonsure and the nuns.

4 Passages - galleries, covered canopy on the sides of the house.

HISTORICAL SONGS

1. DEFINITION OF HISTORICAL SONGS. THEIR ARTISTIC FEATURES

Historical songs are folklore epic, lyric-epic and lyric songs, the content of which is dedicated to specific events and real persons of Russian history and expresses the national interests and ideals of the people. They arose about important events in the history of the people - those that made a deep impression on the participants and co-

kept in the memory of subsequent generations. In the oral tradition, historical songs did not have a special designation and were simply called "songs" or, as bylinas, "antiquities".

More than 600 stories of historical songs are known. The heyday of historical songs was the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. At this time, their cycles were formed around historical figures or events. In the XVI and XVII centuries. the historical song existed as a peasant and Cossack song, and from the 18th century. also as a soldier's, which gradually became the main one.

In historical poetry, the heroic military theme and the theme of popular movements took a large place. Historical songs tell about the past, but they were created based on fresh impressions from true facts, also known from written sources. Over time, and sometimes initially, in the songs, an inaccurate interpretation of events, an assessment of historical figures and other inconsistencies arose.

So, in the song "Avdotya Ryazanochka" Ryazan is replaced by Kazan. The song about the capture of Kazan (Kazan was taken in 1552) ends with the words: And at that time the prince reignedANDpopulation v Moscow kingdom, That then, de Moscow was founded, And since then great glory. but Moscow was founded much earlier: in 1147, in the versions of the song "Defense of Pskov from Stephen Batory" (1581-1582), among the defenders of Pskov, M.V. Skopin-Shuisky is mentioned (who was born in 1587, that is, after 5 years after the defense of the city), B.P. Sheremetev (born in 1652, that is, 70 years after the defense). These and some other historical figures entered the song later. In addition, a hundred thousand army of Stephen Batory took part in the siege of Pskov, and forty thousand is named in the song - an epic number.

The number of examples of such inaccuracies in historical songs could be multiplied. But the cited ones are enough to make sure that the specific persons, events, geographical names, times mentioned in them do not always correspond to reality.

The peculiarities of the artistic historicism of the songs admitted fiction. At the same time, the song reproduced the main thing - historical time, which became its main aesthetic factor. The songs primarily reflected the people's historical consciousness.

Compared to epics, historical songs are characterized by stricter historical accuracy. Their characters are con-

true, real-life figures of history (Ivan the Terrible, Ermak, Razin, Peter I, Pugachev, Suvorov, Kutuzov), and next to them - a simple gunner, soldier or "people". For the heroes in general, fantastic and exaggerated are uncharacteristic, they are ordinary people with their psychology and experiences.

As in epics, in historical songs, great national themes were developed. However, the songs are more laconic than epics, their plot is more dynamic, devoid of developed descriptions, constant formulas, and a system of retardations. Instead of a detailed narrative, the plot is limited to one episode. Monologue and dialogue play a prominent role in the composition of historical songs. The manner of performance of historical songs also differs from the epic: most often they were sung in chorus, and each song had its own, special melody. The verse of historical songs, like epics, is accent, but shorter (usually two-beat). From the middle of the 18th century. in the urban and soldier environment, historical songs appeared with literary features: with alternating rhymes and syllabo-tonic versification; and in the 19th century. songs with historical content began to be chanted like marching, to the step of a soldier's system (which corresponded to a two-syllable meter, rhyme, a clear separation of lines from each other).

Historical songs were distributed most of all in those places where the events described in them took place: in central Russia, on the Lower Volga, among the Don Cossacks, in the Russian North. They began to be recorded in the 17th century. (records for R. James) and recorded over the next centuries, but for the first time the plots of historical songs were identified and systematized (along with epics) in the collection of P.V. Kireevsky. In 1915, a separate scientific edition of historical songs was published, which was prepared by V.F. Miller. From 1960 to 1973, the most complete multivolume academic edition was published, equipped with music supplements and a detailed scientific apparatus 1.

The collections show that historical songs are a significant phenomenon in Russian folklore. Nevertheless, researchers did not come to a consensus regarding the time of their origin, as well as their genre nature. F.I.Buslaev, A.N. Veselovsky, V.F. Miller and the modern scientist S.N. Azbelev considered historical songs as a phenomenon that existed before the 13th century. and became the source of the heroic epic.

1 See the list of references to the topic.

If we share their point of view, then it should be admitted that in the 20th century, historical songs did not cease to exist. Indeed, why are the songs about the Russo-Japanese War, about the Civil War and the Great Patriotic War not historical? After all, they, like the songs of previous centuries, were created in hot pursuit of events by their participants or eyewitnesses and were devoted to large national topics.

Another, more widespread opinion boils down to the fact that historical songs are a phenomenon that arose after the Golden Horde invasion, and in the 19th century. already extinct. They are a new stage in people's comprehension of their history, fundamentally different from the comprehension reflected by epics (Yu. M. Sokolov, BN Putilov, VI Ignatov, etc.).

The reason for different points of view is provided by the historical songs themselves, which are so different in their poetic forms that they do not correspond to the usual ideas about the folklore genre. Some scholars believe that historical songs are a single genre that has several styles. Others are convinced that they are a multi-genre phenomenon (historical songs tell about events in the form of a ballad, or in the form of a lyric song or lamentation).

Nevertheless, historical songs occupy a completely independent place in folklore. The main and sometimes the only thing that unites them is their specific historical content. BN Putilov wrote: "For these songs, the historical content is not just a theme, but a defining ideological and aesthetic principle. Outside of this content, such songs simply cannot exist. They contain historical plots, heroes, historical conflicts and ways of resolving them." ...

2. The main cycles of historical songs

In their totality, historical songs reflect history in its movement - the way the people realized it. In song plots, we are faced with the selection of events, as well as with different aspects of their coverage.

1 Putilov B.N. Russian historical song // Folk historical songs / Vstup. Art., prepared. text and notes. B. N. Putilova. - M .; L., 1962 .-- S. 1

2.1. Early history songs

The earliest historical songs known to us reflected the events of the middle of the 13th century, when individual Russian principalities tried to stop the hordes of Batu.

The song "Avdotya Ryazanochka" tells about the tragedy of 1237: old Ryazan was wiped off the face of the earth by the conquerors, and its inhabitants were killed or driven into slavery. The song persistently repeats a common place - the image of this disaster:

Yes, he ravaged Kazan city under forest 1 ,

He ravaged Kazan-de city for nothing.

He knocked out all the boyar princes in Kazan,

Yes, and noble princesses-

I took those alive in full.

He filled the people with many thousands,

He took him to his Turkish land<...>

The heroine of the song - the city dweller Avdotya - showed courage, patience and wisdom. According to the song, she brought all her people out of captivity and built Kazan city of nanovo(modern Ryazan was built in a different place).

The plot of this song, and possibly the image of Avdotya, are fictional. Fiction was based on the poetic forms of epics and early (mythological) fairy tales. Stylistic clichés (common places) are associated with these genres: a hyperbolic image of the enemy (Let the rivers flow, the lakes are deep;Let the fierce beasts) the plot itself is about a journey to another kingdom (to the Turkish land) and those obstacles that turned out to be in the way of Avdotya, the motive for solving a difficult riddle. The song has a ballad element: the "mystery" of King Bakhmet passed through Avdotya's heart, stirring up her feelings for her husband, father-in-law, mother-in-law, son, daughter-in-law, daughter, son-in-law and dear brother. Consequently, private human life was highlighted, and the National Tragedy is shown through the tragedy of one family.

The everyday refraction of the historical collision also occurred in the songs of the ballad type about the girls in the meadow. The plot motive of the enemy's raid with the aim of taking away the girl goes back to ancient times, to those archaic marriage customs, when a woman was the main prey of a foreign kidnapper. By connecting this Motive with the Golden Horde invasion, folklore typified many life situations of that time.

1 As noted above, the name of the city has been changed to "Kazan".

In the song "Tatarsky is Full" an elderly woman, captured by the Tatars and given to one of them in slavery, turns out to be the mother of his Russian wife, the grandmother of his son. The song is imbued with vivid humanistic pathos: the Tatar son-in-law, having learned that the slave is his mother-in-law, treats her with due respect. In this interpretation, universal human ideals turned out to be higher than heroic-patriotic ones. However, in other plots of the same group, the girl escapes from Tatar captivity or even kills herself so as not to get to the enemy.

The epic narrative is characteristic of the song "Shchelkan Du-dentievich", which is based on a real fact: the uprising in 1327 of the oppressed inhabitants of Tver against the khan ruler Shevkal (Duden's son). The content of the song expressed the people's deep hatred of the conquerors, which manifested itself primarily in the generalized image of Shchelkan. Various artistic means were used in its depiction. For example, when Shchelkan was portrayed as a tribute collector, the method of gradual narrowing of images 1 was applied, which helped to convincingly show the tragic, servile position of the people:

WITH he took princes a hundred rubles each,

From boyars to fifty,

From peasants for five rubles;

Who has no money,

The child will take from tovo;

Which child does not have,

He will take his wife;

Who has no wife,

T ovo will take his own head.

The hyperbole technique was used. So, in order to earn the favor of Khan Azvyak, Shchelkan fulfilled his savage demand: he stabbed his own son, drained a cup of his blood and drank it. For this, he was made the khan's ruler in Tver, whose inhabitants he tortured with his atrocities. However, according to the song, he himself suffered a terrible end. Some Borisovich brothers came to Shchelkan on behalf of the townspeople with gifts for peace negotiations. He accepted the gifts, but behaved in such a way that he deeply offended the petitioners. Using hyperbole again, the song depicted the death of Shchelkan: one brother grabbed him by the hair, and the other by the legs - And then it was torn apart. At

1 About him, see the chapter "Lyrical non-ritual songs".

this Borisovich went unpunished (No one is looking for a moose), although in real history the uprising in Tver was brutally suppressed.

Early historical songs are works about the time when Russia was under the yoke of the Golden Horde yoke. The songs became a concentrated expression of this tragic period in the fate of the people.

2.2. Historical songs of the 16th century

In the XVI century. classic examples of historical songs appeared.

A cycle of songs about Ivan the Terrible developed the theme of the struggle against external and internal enemies for the strengthening and unification of the Russian land around Moscow. The songs used old epic traditions: the organization of their plots, narrative techniques, stylistics were largely borrowed from epics.

So, for example, "Song of Kostryuk" in some versions had a characteristic ending. The defeated Kostryuk says to the king:

"Thank you, son-in-law,

Tsar Ivan Vasilievich,

On your stone Moscow!

God forbid me to be again

In your stone Moscow

Otherwise it would be for me, and for my children! "

This ending echoes the end of some of the epics of the Kiev cycle:

I will order for children and grandchildren

Drive to the city to Kiev.

It is also reproduced almost verbatim in the song "Defense of Pskov from Stefan Batory":

<...>Forcibly, the king himself-third ran away.

Running, he, the dog, conjures:

"God forbid me to be in Russia,

Neither my children nor my grandchildren,

And neither for grandchildren, nor for great-grandchildren G .

Some storytellers of epics almost completely transferred the description of the feast from epics into a historical song about Ivan the Terrible and his son, etc.

"Folk historical songs / Introductory article, prepared text and notes by BN Putilov. - M .; L., 1962. - pp. 88-89.

2 Folk historical songs ... - p. 104.

At the same time, the song image of Ivan the Terrible, in contrast to the heroes of the epic, is psychologically complex and contradictory. Comprehending the essence of royal power, the people portrayed Grozny as the organizer of the state, a wise ruler. But, as it really was, the king is hot-tempered, angry and recklessly cruel in anger. He is opposed by any reasonable person who courageously pacifies the king's anger and prevents his irreparable deed.

The song "Taking the Kazan Kingdom" quite close to reality describes the events of 1552. The people correctly realized and reflected the general political and state meaning of the conquest of Kazan: this major victory of the Russian people over the Tatars put an end to their domination. The trip was organized by the king. Having besieged Kazan, the Russians dug under the city wall and laid barrels of gunpowder. There was no explosion at the supposed time, and Grozny inflamed suspected treason and conceived the gunners here to execute. But from among them came a young gunner, who explained to the tsar why the explosion of the fortress wall was delayed: the candle left on the powder barrels under the ground had not yet burned out ( That the candle burns faster in the wind, And in the ground, that candle goes quieter). Indeed, an explosion soon thundered, which raised a high mountain and scattered white chambers It should be noted that the documents do not say anything about the clash between Grozny and the gunner - perhaps this is a folk fiction. |

The fight against treason became the main theme of the song about the anger of the Terrible against his son (see "Terrible Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich"). As you know, in 1581, in a fit of anger, the tsar killed his eldest son Ivan. In the song, the tsar's anger falls on his youngest son, Fyodor, who was accused of treason by his brother Ivan.

This work reveals the dramatic era of the reign of Ivan IV. It is said about his reprisals against the population of entire cities (those where he brought treason), depicts the cruel deeds of the oprichnina, terrible pictures of the mass persecution of people Blaming his younger brother, Tsarevich Ivan says:

Ay formidable sir, Tsar Ivan Vasilievich,

Ay our parent. the same father!

You were driving along the street-

I was driving along the street,-

He beat some of them, but did they hang others,

I put those who are worthy in prisons.

And Fyodor and Ivanovich rode with a heart,

Beal executed and hanged others,

I put those who are worthy in prisons,

He did send out decrees in advance,

So that the little one should run,

So that the old and the rostulyalis ...

A psychological portrait sketch of the tsar runs through the song as a leitmotif:

His eye was dimly clouded.

His royal heart burned.

The Tsar orders the execution of Fyodor, and the executioner Malyuta Skuratov is in a hurry to carry out the sentence. However, the prince is saved by the brother of his mother (the first wife of Ivan the Terrible Anastasia Romanovna) old Mikitushka Romanovich. The next day, the king, thinking that his son is no longer alive, suffers deeply. In this scene we face not a statesman, but a repentant father:

It’s hard for the tsar to burst into tears:

- Thieves and robbers

E<есть>intercessors and fencers.

For my little children

There was no nun and an intercessor,

Neither an intercessor nor a fence!

But he knows about the rescue of the prince. The grateful tsar-father gives Nikita Romanovich, at his request, a patrimony in which any person who has stumbled could hide and receive forgiveness.

In connection with the marriage of Grozny to the Circassian princess Maria Temryukovna, a parody Song of Kostryuk was composed. Kostryuk, the king's brother-in-law, is depicted hyperbolically, in an epic style. He brags about his strength, demands the duelist. But in fact, he is an imaginary hero. The Moscow wrestlers not only defeat Kostryuk, but, having taken off his dress, put him up to ridicule. The song is composed in the style of a merry buffoon. Its plot is most likely fictional, since there is no historical evidence of the Oborbetsar brother-in-law with the Russian fist fighters.

A number of other historical songs about Ivan the Terrible and his time are known: "The raid of the Crimean Khan", "Ivan the Terrible at Serpukhov", "Defense of Pskov from

Stefan Batory "," Ivan the Terrible and a good fellow "," Terek Cossacks and Ivan the Terrible ".

Cycle of songs about Ermak- the second large cycle of historical songs of the 16th century.

Ermak Timofeevich - the Don Cossack chieftain - deserved the wrath of the Terrible. Escaping, he goes to the Urals. First, Ermak was a guard, he seized the possession of the Stroganov breeders from the attacks of the Siberian Khan Kuchum, then began a campaign into the depths of Siberia. In 1582, Ermak defeated the main forces of Kuchum on the banks of the Irtysh.

"Song of Yermak" depicts the difficult and long journey of his detachment along unknown rivers, the fierce struggle with the horde of Kuchum, the courage and resourcefulness of the Russian people. In another song - "Ermak Timofeevich and Ivan the Terrible" - Ermak confessed to the tsar. However, the royal prince-boyars, duma senators they persuade Grozny to execute Ermak. The king did not listen to them: I

Forgave him in all the wines

And only Kazan and Astrakhan ordered to be taken.

Ermak is a truly national hero, his image has become deeply embedded in folklore. Violating the chronological framework, later historical songs ascribe campaigns to Kazan and Astrakhan to Ermak, turning him into a contemporary and accomplice in the actions of Razin and Pugachev.

So, the main idea of ​​historical songs of the XVI century. - unification, strengthening and expansion of Moscow Russia.

2.3. Historical songs of the 17th century

XVII century song cycles about the Time of Troubles and about

Stepan Razin.

A cycle of songs about "Time of Troubles" reflected the acute social and national struggle of the late 16th - early 17th centuries.

After the death of Ivan the Terrible (1584), his young son Tsarevich Dimitri (born in 1582), together with his mother Maria Naga and her relatives, was expelled by the boyar council from Moscow to Uglich. In 1591 the tsarevich died in Uglich. After the death of Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich in 1598, Boris Godunov became Tsar - the People's Song responded to this event in the following way:

Oh, it was with us, brothers, in the old years ...

<...>How did our Orthodox tsar pass away?

Fedor Ivanovich,

So Rosseyushka got to the villainous hands.

Villainous hands, boyars-masters.

One riotous head appeared from the boyars,

One riotous head, Boris Godunov's son.

Already this Godunov cheated all the boyars-people.

Already the crazy Rosseyushka decided to manage,

He took possession of all of Russia, began to reign in Moscow.

Already he got the kingdom by the death of the king,

Death of the glorious Tsar, Saint Dmitry Tsarevich ^.

In 1605 Boris Godunov died. In the summer of the same year, False Dmitry I (Grishka Otrepiev) entered Moscow. Folklore preserved two laments of the daughter of Tsar Boris, Ksenia Godunova, whom the impostor tonsured into a monastery: she was taken across all of Moscow, and she lamented (see "Lament by Ksenia Godunova"). The fact that Xenia is the daughter of a tsar hated by the people did not matter for the idea of ​​the work; the only important thing was that she was cruelly and unjustly offended. Sympathy for the grievous fate of the princess was at the same time a condemnation of the impostor.

The images of Grigory Otrepiev and his foreign wife Marina Mnishek in songs are always parodic and caricatured. In the song "Grishka Rasstriga" (see in the Reader), both of them are condemned for desecration of Russian customs. Marina Mnishek is called an evil heretic atheist. In 1606 the impostor was killed, Marina Mnishek fled. The song says that she She turned around like a magpie And she flew out of the way.

Historical songs from this period positively portray those who opposed the foreign invaders. Such was Mikhail Vasilievich Skopin-Shuisky - a prince, a talented commander and diplomat who defeated the Poles in 1610. The Polish interventionists acquired the features of epic enemies in the historical song. National recognition, the solemn meeting of Skopin-Shuisky in Moscow caused envy and hatred among the princes and boyars. According to contemporaries, in April 1610, at the christening of Prince I.M. Vorotynsky, he suddenly fell ill and died during the night. It is assumed that the prince was poisoned by the daughter of Malyuta Skuratov. This event shocked the Muscovites so much that it became the basis for several songs (see the song "Mikhail Skopin-Shuisky"). In the Arkhangelsk province. one of them was reworked into an epic (recordings at the beginning of the 20th century by A.V. Markov and N.E. Onchukov). The songs mourned Skopin's death as a heavy loss for the state.

1 Songs collected by P. V. Kireevsky. - Part 2: Songs of the past, historical. - Issue. Vii. - M., 1868 .-- S. 2-3.

A cycle of songs about Stepan Razin- one of the largest. These songs were widespread in folklore - much wider than those places where the movement developed in 1667-1671. They lived in popular memory for several centuries. Many, having lost their confinement to the name of Razin, entered an extensive circle of robber songs.

The songs of the Razin cycle are varied in content. They carry out on all stages of the movement: the robbery of Razin "" with the Cossacks in the Caspian (Khvalynsky) the sea; peasant; war; songs about the suppression of the uprising and the execution of Stepan Razin; songs of the Razin people who were hiding after the defeat in the forests. At the same time, almost all of them are lyrical and plotless in terms of genre type. Only two songs can be called lyrical epic: "" Razin's son in Astrakhan "and" Astrakhan voivode (governor) was killed ".

In the song about "son" there is a joke, anecdotal element. Her hero - daring fellow, who, bowing to no one, proudly walks through the city, feasts in the tsar's tavern." Sonny "- Razin's envoy, who appeared in Astrakhan in order to inform the governor about the upcoming arrival of the ataman himself:

"From the river Kamyshka Senka Razin I am a son.

My father wanted to visit.

I wanted to visit, you know how to accept it,

You know how to accept it, know how to treat it.

If you know how to accept, I will give you a kunya fur coat,

And if you do not know how to accept, I will put you in prison "^.

The angry governor jails him in a white stone prison, however, Razin with the robbers is already hurrying to the rescue. "

The most deeply social theme is revealed in the song about the murder of the Astrakhan governor (see in the Reader). The expanded exposition colorfully depicts river expanses, beautythe banks are steep, the meadows are green ... They float along the river shavingsEsaulian, on which the robbers sit - all the barge haulers, all the young men from the Volga region. The song idealizes their appearance:

Well all the daredevils were dressed up:

They are wearing sable hats, velvet tops;

On the damask, their caftans are uniform; Rope beshmet are stitched in a thread;

Silk shirts are lined with galloon;

1 Folk historical songs ... - p. 182.

Boots on all the good fellows are morocco;

They rowed with oars and sang songs.

The goal of the barge haulers is to watch the ship on which the governor of Astrakhan is sailing. Here in the distance the flags of the governors turned whiteKi. Seeing imminent death, the governor tries to pay off the robbers golden treasury, colored dress, overseas curiosities- but this is not what they want free people are brave. They arrange reprisals over the governor: they cut him off riot head and throw her to Mother Volga. The governor deserves punishment, which is explained by the song itself:

"You are kind, the governor, you were very strict with us, You did beat us, you ruined us, exiled us, At the gates of our wives, our children were shot!"

The songs of the Razin cycle were created mainly in the Cossack environment and in many ways expressed the ideals of struggle and freedom inherent in Cossack creativity. They are deeply poetic. Stepan Razin is portrayed in them by means of folk poetry: he is not an individualized, but a generalized hero, embodying traditional ideas about masculine strength and beauty. The songs contain many images from the natural world, which emphasize their general poetic atmosphere and emotional tension. This is especially evident in songs about the defeat of the uprising, filled with lyrical repetitions and appeals to nature:

Oh, you are my fogs, fogs,

You are my impenetrable fog,

How hateful sorrow-longing!<...>

You ram, ram, a formidable cloud,

You pour it, pour it down a lot of rain,

You soften, soften the earthen prison<...>

The image of the clouded quiet Don- From the top to the black sea, To the black sea of ​​Azov - conveys the sadness of the Cossack circle, who lost its chieftain:

They caught a good fellow,

Tied the white hands,

They drove to stone Moscow

And on the glorious Red Square They cut off a riot's head.

Razin folklore, which has great artistic merit, attracted the attention of many poets. In the XIX century. folk songs about Stepan Razin of literary origin appeared: "From behind the island to the rod ..." by D. N. Sadovnikov, "Cliff of Stenka Razin" by A. A. Navrotsky, etc.

2.4. Historical songs of the 18th century

Since the 18th century. historical songs were created mainly among soldiers and Cossacks.

A cycle of songs about Petrovsky time talks about the various events of this period. Songs related to the wars and military victories of the Russian army come to the fore. Songs were composed about the capture of the fortress of Azov, the cities of Oreshka (Shlis-Selburg), Riga, Vyborg and others. They expressed a sense of pride in the successes achieved by the Russian state, glorified the courage of Russian soldiers. In the songs of this period, new images appeared - ordinary soldiers, direct participants in the battles. In the song "Under the glorious city of Nut", Peter I consults with his generals about the upcoming hostilities - they persuade the tsar retreat from the city. Then Peter I turns to the soldiers:

"Oh, you goy thou, my children, soldiers!

You come up with a little idea for me, guess-

Should we still take or not Orekh-gorod? "

That not ardent bees in the hive made a noise.

What will the Russian soldiers say:

"Oh, you goy thou, our father the sovereign-tsar!

We will swim to him with water- do not swim,

We go dry- do not reach.

Will we not retreat from the city,

And we will be his white chest brothers "\

It should be noted that in most of the songs the soldiers speak of the commanders with respect and even admiration. Field Marshal BP Sheremetev ("Sheremetev and the Swedish Major", etc.) was especially popular among the soldiers. The song image of the ataman of the Don Cossack army IM Krasnoshchekov ("Krasnoshchekov in captivity") is fanned with heroic romance.

In the songs of Petrovsky time, the theme of the Battle of Poltava occupies an important place. The people understood its importance for Russia, but at the same time they realized at what cost the victory over the army of Charles XII went to . The song "The Poltava Affair" (see in the Reader) ends with a detailed metaphor "battle-arable land":

Swedish arable land is plowed up.

Plowed by a soldier's white chest;

Orana Swedish arable land

Soldier's feet;

The Swedish arable land is hardened

Soldier's hands;

Sown new arable land

Soldier's heads;

Watered new arable land

Hot soldier's blood.

The idealized image of Peter I himself occupies a large place in historical songs. Here, as in the legends, his active nature, closeness to ordinary soldiers, and justice are emphasized. For example, in the song "Peter I and the Young Dragoon" the tsar agrees to fight the young dragoon about fifteen. Having been defeated, the king says:

"Thank you, young dragoon, for the harrow!

Than you, young dragoon, to give-bestow:

Whether they are villages, villages,

Ali those gold treasury? "

The young dragoon replies that he only needs one thing: without money Drink wine in the tsar's taverns 1 .

At the beginning of the 18th century. songs were composed about the execution of the Streltsy - participants in the Streltsy revolt, organized in 1698 by Tsar Sophia. They sang on behalf of the archers and emphasized their courage, although they did not condemn the tsar ("Archer atamanushka and Tsar Peter the First" and others).

A special group was made up of the songs of the Nekrasov Cossacks. They tell about the departure in 1708 from the Don to the Kuban of several thousand Old Believer Cossacks headed by the ataman Ignat Nekrasov, as well as about their second departure from the Kuban beyond the Danube in 1740.

Folk historical songs ... - p. 224.

Folk historical songs ... - p. 211.

A cycle of songs about the Pugachev uprising makes up a relatively small number of texts recorded in the Urals, in the Orenburg steppes and in the Volga region from the descendants of participants or eyewitnesses of the events of 1773-1775. It is necessary to emphasize its connection with the Razin cycle (for example, the song about "son" Stepan Razin was completely confined to the name of Pugachev). However, in general, the attitude towards Pugachev in the songs is controversial: he is seen either as a tsar or as a rebel.

During the Pugachev Uprising, General-in-Chief Count P.I. Panin was appointed commander-in-chief of the troops in the Orenburg and Volga regions. On October 2, 1774, in Simbirsk, he met with the captured and brought there Pugachev.

This is how Alexander Pushkin describes this event (according to the documents) in The History of Pugachev: “Pugachev was brought directly to the courtyard to Count Panin, who met him on the porch, surrounded by his headquarters.“ Who are you? ”He asked. impostor. "Emelyan Ivanov Pugachev", - he answered. “How dare you, a thief, to call yourself a tsar?” - continued Panin. “I am not a raven (Pugachev objected, playing with words and speaking allegorically, as usual), I am a raven, but a raven still flies.” - You need to know that the Yaik rioters, in refutation of the general rumor, spread a rumor that there was indeed a certain Pugachev between them, but that he had nothing in common with Tsar Peter III, who was leading them. the impostor had blood on his face and tore out a piece of his beard. Pugachev knelt down and asked for pardon. He was put under a strong guard, shackled hand and foot, with an iron hoop around his loins, on a chain screwed to the wall. "

The popular response to this event was the song "The Trial of Pugachev" (see in the Reader). The song gives its own interpretation of the meeting, filling it with a sharp social meaning. Like the heroes of robber folklore (see, for example, the lyric song "Don't make a noise, mother, green oak tree ..."), Pugachev talks to Panin proudly and courageously, threatens him and thus terrifies him (Count and Panin got scared, sewed with their hands- "danced). Even chained, Pugachev is so dangerous that his all Moscow senators cannot judge.

Songs about the Pugachev uprising are known among different peoples of the Volga region: Bashkirs, Mordovians, Chuvashes, Tatars, Udmurts.

1 Pushkin A.S. Collected cit .: In 10 volumes. - T. 7. - M., 1976. - S. 85.

2.5. Historical songs of the 19th century

From the second half of the 18th century. the image of the tsar in the soldiers' songs began to decline, he was contrasted with the image of one or another commander: Suvorov, Potemkin, Kutuzov, Cossack chieftain Platov.

A cycle of songs about the Patriotic War of 1812 in artistic terms is very different from the early cycles. In it, the connection with the epic has already been lost, and at the same time, a tendency towards rapprochement with folk and even book poetry is noticeable. The songs are a soldier's story about some event, which appears as one episode, not always reliable. (For example, the content of the song "Platov Visiting a Frenchman" is completely fictional). The plot is transmitted statically, undeveloped, it is almost necessarily preceded by a lyrical beginning. For example, a song about a conversation between Field Marshal M.I.Kutuzov and a French major (see in the Reader) begins with an opening expressing admiration for the Russian military leader:

That it was not a red sun that shone:

A sharp saber shone at Kutuzov

... Prince Kutuzov drives out into the open field<...>

Typical details prevail in the songs, and the characters are revealed through their actions, speech, or through comparisons. Life situations of the same type appear in old, already well-known art forms.

For example, an ancient epic motif was used about how the enemy leader sent an ultimatum letter to the Russian prince:

The French king is sent to the white king:

"Save me apartments, exactly forty thousand apartments,

For myself, the king, white tents. "

The letter plunges the king into despondency: His royal personage has changed. The Tsar is encouraged by Kutuzov:

He already spoke a speech, general,

As if blowing a trumpet:

"Don't be frightened, our father is an Orthodox tsar!

And we will meet the villain in the middle of the road

In the middle of the path on their own land

And we will put tables for him- copper cannons,

And we will lay tablecloths for him- are free bullets.

We'll put red-hot buckshot for a snack,

The cannon girls will treat him, all the Cossacks will accompany him "^"

The artistic loss of historical songs of this period can be considered the frequent lack of plot integrity in them. Some songs consist of random, fragmentary and unfinished episodes, loosely connected with each other.

So, for example, the song about the ataman of the Don Cossack army M.I. Platov begins with a lyrical opening:

From your pure hearts

Let's take a crown for Platov.

We'll put it on the head

The songs themselves voraciously<...>

Then the soldiers talk about how well they in the armywhoo- provided with everything you need. Then - unmotivated transition to the battle scene (Ours began to shoot ...), and at the end it says that the Frenchman knocks down with the army and lavishes threats stone Moscow(cm. v Readers).

Such facts testify to the process of reformation of the old system of folklore, especially its epic forms. The people were looking for new ways of poetic expression. Nevertheless, the historical songs captured the important events of 1812: the battles near Smolensk, the Battle of Borodino, the devastation of Moscow, the crossing of the Berezina, etc. The songs expressed the patriotic feeling of peasants, Cossacks, soldiers; their love for national heroes - the generals Kutuzov, Platov; their hatred of enemies.

In the XIX century. historical songs were composed about other events - for example, about the Crimean (eastern) war of 1853-1856. The songs dedicated to the defense of Sevastopol portrayed the courage and heroism of ordinary soldiers and sailors.

Historical songs are the oral poetic chronicle of the people, their emotional story about the history of the country.

REFERENCES TO THE TOPIC Texts.

Songs collected by P. V. Kireevsky. Published by the Society of Russian Literature Lovers. - Part 2: Songs of the past, historical. - Issue. 6-10. - M., 1864-1874.

1 Folk historical songs ... - pp. 274-275. 266

Miller V.F. Historical songs of the Russian people XVI-XVII centuries. -

Historical songs of the ХШ-ХУ1 centuries / Ed. prepared by B.N. Putilov, B.M. Dobrovolsky. - M .; L., 1960.

Historical songs of the 17th century / Ed. prepared by OB Alekseeva, 5. M - Dobrovolsky and others - M; L., 1966.

Historical songs of the 18th century / Ed. prepared by O. B. Alekseeva, L. I. Emelyanov. - L., 1971.

Historical songs of the XIX century / Ed. prepared by L. V. Domanovskiy, O. B. Alekseeva, E. S. Litvin. - L., 1973.

Russian historical songs. - 2nd ed., Rev. and add. / Comp. V.I. Ignatov. - M., 1985.

Research.

Putilov B.N. Russian historical song folklore of the XIII-XVI centuries. - M .; L., 1960.

Sokolova V.K. Russian historical songs ХУТ-ХУШ centuries. - M., 1960. [Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Proceedings of the Institute of Ethnography. N.N. Miklouho-Maclay. New series. - T. 1X1].

Krinichnaya N.A. Folk historical songs of the beginning of the XVII century. - L., 1974.

At all times, people have been extremely curious. They wanted to know what awaited them and what came before them. Interest in the secrets of the long gone centuries piqued their curiosity more and more. Excitement led to the fact that people created one of the greatest sciences for the entire period of human existence - history. It is impossible to imagine what kind of event or fact prompted people to create such a brainchild, nevertheless, historical science is the most ancient of all. Its origins stretch back to the times of ancient Greece and Rome, when writing, government, literature and art were just in their infancy. As humanity itself evolved, history developed, so today we are given a unique opportunity to look through the prism of time at those events and people who once lived and did great things. Also striking is the relationship of history with other popular and important disciplines of our time, such as politics, philosophy and economics. This feature shows the versatility and irreplaceability of history as a fundamental science. Every person dreams of knowing everything in the world, because knowledge is the most formidable weapon. Therefore, history is intended to study the past in order to better understand the present and foresee the future.

Is history a science or something more?

According to many scholars, modern history began in 484 BC.

It was in that year that the famous Herodotus of Halicarnassus was born, who is rightfully called the "father of history". Most of his historical works made it possible to see the life and order of ancient Greece, Scythia, Persia and other countries.

This man is the author of the famous treatise entitled "History". For domestic science, the works of Herodotus were like the Bible. Most of the ancient tribes described by the scientist lived on the territory of modern Russia and Ukraine.

The term itself comes from the Greek language. "History" in translation means "research" or a science that studies the way of life and life of a person in the past. A narrower definition presents history as a science that studies historical events and facts for their objective description, study, and also in order to establish the sequence of the entire historical process.

The appearance of Herodotus and other scholars working later influenced the process of the formation of history itself. From that moment on, the main stages in the development of historical knowledge can be identified, which has developed over the years and has been increasingly filled with new terms and concepts. Today, these stages are the basis in the study of historical science.

Stages of development of historical science

History has always developed cyclically. Its evolutionary process has never been presented as a sequence. The inconstancy of man himself brought great changes to science itself, thereby developing it. Almost all stages in the development of historical knowledge have many features. These unique facts characterize each stage in its own way. There are four main stages in total, namely:

Ancient historical science.

Medieval historical science.

Historical science of the XX century.

Characteristics of the stages

It has already been pointed out that the stages in the development of historical knowledge have their own characteristic features. Each of them has one or another aspect that distinguishes the stage from the array of others.

1) History was fundamental, since all subsequent interpretations of this science came from the original version. For this stage, the following features are characteristic: a creative approach to science, historical events were described together with the geography and economics of the location, there was no scientific form of narration, it was not produced for disciplines.

2) The Middle Ages brought to history some aspects that were not there before. For example, already in the 17th century, a general picture of world history was formed. A unified chronology system was also established, and the growth of interest in the past progressed.

3) New time is the century of development of science and technology. brought into history fundamentally new approaches to the learning process. Science was dominated by the principles of objectivity, historicism and critical analysis of historical sources.

4) Even taking into account all the innovations, the stages in the development of historical knowledge did not have such an explosive effect as in the 20th century. At this time, history became the foundation of politics, sociology, social psychology, etc. Science was actively used by politicians of those times for propaganda. The collapse of the colonial empires also influenced the development of this stage. Many unknown states were able to join the world community and donate their culture to everyone.

History as a primary and secondary science

Earlier, the fact of versatility and functionality was noted. Such a judgment is proved by the fact that this science can be considered as basic and as secondary. The main history gives the world not only classical knowledge about the past, but also makes a great contribution to other sciences, such as philosophy and politics. However, history can be used as a context in which the main stages of the formation of a completely different science will be considered. For example, the main historical stages in the development of environmental knowledge have evolved over the years. Each of them has gone through a certain time frame of different eras. Hence, we can talk about the history of these stages.

History and politics

The ability to run a state has arisen a long time ago. To learn this craft, many commanders, scientists or simply wealthy citizens of any country studied for years. This skill is called politics. It can be compared to art, since a person needs a little more than just talent to successfully manage all state processes. A politician is a sculptor whose clay is the state and its inner life. This science appeared and developed in parallel with history. Greece, in which politics originated, contributed to its development. The main stages of knowledge in history are associated with the process of the formation of historical science. This is due to the fact that the historical process actually gave rise to politics. Many "venerable" politicians used their historical knowledge for the masses. But that is another topic.

The main historical stages of the development of philosophical knowledge

History and philosophy have almost always been inextricably linked with each other. These sciences supplemented and developed themselves. History allows you to look at what the world was like in the past, and philosophy shows the spiritual, identical essence of the past and man.

The parallel development of these sciences brought the world a completely new branch of knowledge - the history of philosophy. It allows you to look at how philosophy developed, taking into account the historical events accompanying this development. Large periods have the formational essence of socio-economic relations.

At their core, history and philosophy are related sciences. The only difference is in the way of worldview of the representatives of these sciences. If historians are only interested in chronology and other aspects of the life of a person of the past, then philosophers consider the spiritual perception of the surrounding world. But the stages in the development of historical knowledge help to highlight the periods of the formation and development of philosophy. To date, the following stages in philosophy are distinguished:

Ancient philosophy.

Feudal philosophy.

Bourgeois Formational Philosophy.

Modern science philosophy.

The law of three stages

History not only gave, but also received certain benefits from the process of joint development with philosophy. Back in 1830, a theory was put forward, which later became the law. She has determined her time in many ways. Its author, Auguste Comte, called the theory "The Law of the Three Stages of the Historical Development of Knowledge."

He suggested that any knowledge and information goes through three main stages in the process of implementation in the mind of a person. These three theoretical stages have been identified through the study of human consciousness. By means of the law, it is possible to explain and study in detail all stages of the development of historical science.

Description of the stages of the "Law of three stages"

Each stage has its own purpose. There are only three stages: theological, metaphysical, positive. The features of each are determined by the functions that it performs.

1) The theological stage allows you to determine the receipt of primitive knowledge about something. In this case, the human mind is in the state of an infant. All external processes are explained by analogy with their own actions.

2) The metaphysical stage is a “staging post”. At this stage, the mind strives for absolute knowledge. The only difference from the first stage is that a person is capable of abstract thinking, and not a banal comparison.

3) The positive stage is the peak of the evolution of thinking. In the context of this stage, knowledge is introduced into a specific industry. According to Comte, this stage is the most serious, because it shows the process of evolution of a certain knowledge in the human mind.

Thanks to this theory, the stages in the development of historical science are filled with facts and events, and are also studied much more scrupulously. "Law" clearly shows the process of progressive development of history as a science.

History now

So, the article examined the origin and the main stages in the development of historical knowledge, as well as related sciences.

In the modern world, history plays an important role. It is a fundamental science in the learning process. In addition, scientists enrich science with new knowledge using the latest technologies and techniques.

Primitive era 1.5 million - IV - III etc. before. AD (communal-clan, clan), covers the era from the appearance of the first people to the emergence of the state. It is characterized by the transition from hunting, fishing and gathering to agriculture and livestock raising, collective labor and consumption. The main unit of primitive society, in the opinion of most scholars, was the maternal clan, which was replaced under patriarchy by a large family and then a neighboring community. The development of production and the social division of labor led to the emergence of private property, individual economy and the disintegration of the clan, the allocation of a wealthy elite, who first turned prisoners of war into slaves, then impoverished fellow tribesmen, which caused the emergence of social groups and the state.

Ancient world history has been conducted since the emergence of the first states (IV - III etc. before. AD) the time of the split of society into managers and governed, haves and have-nots, widespread slavery. Antiquity (I tl BC - early AD), the rise of the civilizations of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome.

The Middle Ages it is customary to determine the time frame of the 5th - 17th centuries.

The first period of this era (V- XIcenturies) marked by the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the formation of a new type of social relations associated with the establishment of the estate system in Europe. Within its framework, each class has its own rights and obligations. This time was characterized by the predominance of natural economy and the special role of religion.

Second period (middleXI - end XVv.)- this is the time of the formation of large feudal states, the growth of the importance of cities. They become centers of craft, trade, and spiritual life, which is becoming more and more secular.

The third period (Xvi - middleXviiv.) associated with the beginning of the decomposition of the feudal system, it is sometimes characterized as early modern times. Europeans discover the world, the creation of colonial empires begins. Commodity-money relations are developing rapidly, and manufacturing is becoming widespread. The social structure of society is becoming more complex, it increasingly comes into conflict with its class division. The Reformation and Counter-Reformation mark the beginning of a new stage in spiritual life. In the context of the growth of social and religious contradictions, the central power is strengthened, and absolutist monarchies arise.

4. The era of modern times - the era of the formation and establishment of an industrial, capitalist civilization - is also subdivided into several periods.

First begin with midXviicentury, when the time came for revolutions that destroyed the foundations of the estate system (the first of them was the revolution in England in the 1640-1660s). No less important was the era of the Enlightenment, associated with the spiritual emancipation of man, his gaining faith in the power of reason.

Second period of modern times comes after the Great French Revolution (1789-1794). The industrial revolution, which began in England, covers the countries of continental Europe, where the formation of capitalist relations is proceeding at a rapid pace. This is the time of the rapid growth of colonial empires, the development of the world market, and the system of international division of labor. With the completion of the formation of large bourgeois states, the ideology of nationalism and national interest is being established in most of them.

The third period of modern times comes at the endXIX - the beginningXXcentury. It is characterized by the fact that the rapid development of industrial civilization "in breadth", due to the development of new territories by it, slows down. The capacity of world markets turns out to be insufficient to absorb the growing volumes of manufactured products. The time is coming for deepening global crises of overproduction, the growth of social contradictions in industrial countries. The struggle between them for the redivision of the world begins and intensifies.

Contemporaries perceived this time as a period of crisis for the industrial, capitalist civilization. They considered the first world war of 1914-1918 to be its indicator. and the upheavals associated with it, primarily the 1917 revolution in Russia.

5. Within the framework of the history of modern times, there are two main periods.

The process of deepening, growing crisis of the industrial civilization of the New era, which began at the end of the 19th century, covers the entire first halfXXcentury. It - early Newest time. The severity of the contradictions that made themselves felt in the world continued to grow. The Great Crisis of 1929-1932 put the economies of the most developed countries on the brink of collapse. Sovereign rivalry, the struggle for colonies and product markets led to the Second World War of 1939-1945, even more destructive than the first. The colonial system of European powers is crumbling. The conditions of the "cold war" are tearing the unity of the world market. With the invention of nuclear weapons, the crisis of industrial civilization began to threaten the death of the entire human race.

Qualitative changes associated with a change in the nature of the social, socio-political development of the leading states of the world begin to manifest themselves only in second half- the endXXcentury.

During this period, with the proliferation of computers and industrial robots, the nature of work is changing, and the intellectual worker becomes the central figure in production. In developed countries, a socially oriented market economy is emerging, the nature of life and leisure of a person is changing. Substantial changes are taking place in the international arena, and cooperation is replacing state rivalry. Integration processes are developing, common economic spaces are taking shape (West European, North American, etc.). With the collapse of the USSR and its system of alliances, the integrity of the world market is restored, the processes of globalization of economic life begin to develop, and a worldwide system of information communications is taking shape.

At the same time, the symptoms of the crisis of the industrial society are making themselves felt in many parts of the world and at the beginning of the 21st century, including in the territory of the former USSR.

The definition of the subject of history is associated with the historian's worldview, his philosophical views.

Historians who take materialistic positions believe that history as a science studies concrete, limited by certain space-time frames, laws of social development associated with the activities of people.

The prevailing belief in Western science is that the main object of study in history is man. The famous French historian Mark Blok defined history as "the science of people in time", and he brought to the fore the spiritual side of human activity, believing that the subject of history "in the exact and last sense is the consciousness of people."

Serious discrepancies between scientists of various concepts concern not only the definition of the subject of history, but also the explanation of the historical process.

In the Marxist historical-materialist concept, the ultimate cause and the decisive driving force of all major historical events and processes is considered labor, production, and the mode of production. Along with this, the special in the historical process is recognized - historical conditions (class struggle, relationships with other countries, geographical and other features, etc.), as well as the individual - the activity of historical personalities.

Among Western concepts, a pluralistic interpretation of the historical process has become widespread, when the common cause of historical development is not recognized, but it is believed that many diverse factors operate in society, which are regulated by the diversity of interests of various social organizations and groups.

For example, the American sociologist and historian R. Pipes and the English historian Tibor. Samueli defined the uniqueness of history (and place in the world-historical process) of Russia as follows:

1. Poverty of soil and climatic conditions, which led to the patrimonial form of government.

2. The influence of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, which transferred the eastern form of social structure to the Russian society.

3. Borrowing of Christianity from Byzantium, which led to the disregard of "analytical reason", to the consolidation of authoritarian power.

4. Special, characteristic of the Russian nation, ethnic characteristics. For these reasons, there was no soil in Russia for the formation of democratic traditions and institutions.

No matter what ideological positions historians have, they all use in their research the scientific apparatus, certain scientific categories of "historical time". In this category, any event can be measured in time and space. And history as a process is not just a set of adjacent point events, but a movement from event to event.

Periodization is inextricably linked with the concept of "historical time" - as a form of quantitative (temporal) designation of historical processes. The first attempt to periodize world history was made by humanist historians. They considered the Middle Ages as a decline, first of all - the decline of culture, and they assessed their time as the Renaissance.

The ideologists of the Enlightenment (J.-J. Rousseau) divided the history of mankind into three periods: the state of nature, the wild and the civilized.

Later, other periodization theories arose. The English historian Alfred Toynbee (30s of the XX century) believed that there were so-called local civilizations in history (he identified 21 civilizations in total). Each of them goes through the stages of origin, growth, decomposition and death.

In the Marxist historical-materialist concept, it is customary to build periodization on the basis of changes (change) in the modes of production or socio-economic formations, which successively replace each other.

Historical science deals with facts that form the basis of all historical knowledge. All ideas and concepts are based on facts. The perception and explanation of historical reality, the ability to comprehend the essence of the historical process, depends on the reliability of the facts.

In historical science, facts are considered in two senses:

1) as a phenomenon that took place in history;

2) as its reflection in historical science (fact-knowledge).

But there is a close connection between them. The second is impossible without the first. By themselves, "bare facts" as they say "fragments of reality" may not say anything to the reader. Only the historian gives the fact a certain meaning, which depends on his general scientific and ideological-theoretical views. Therefore, in different systems of views, one and the same historical fact receives a different interpretation, a different meaning. Between a historical fact (event, phenomenon) and the corresponding scientific and historical fact there is an explanation - interpretation. It is she (interpretation) that turns the facts of history into facts of science. Doesn't the very existence of different interpretations of historical facts mean that there is no historical truth or there are several of them? No, it doesn't. Our ideas about truth are simply changing. The movement of science is moving, as it were, from an incomplete, relative truth to a more complete one. But absolute truth, as you know, does not exist, therefore, as long as society lives, the "last chapter" of history will not be written either.

The historian, as a rule, deals with the past and cannot directly observe the object of his study. The main, and in most cases the only source of information about the past for him is a historical monument, through which he receives the necessary concrete historical data, factual material, which forms the basis of historical knowledge.

Historical sources are understood as all the remnants of the past, in which historical evidence was deposited, reflecting the real phenomena of social life and human activity. A special scientific discipline about historical sources, methods of their identification, criticism and use in the work of a historian is called source study.

All historical sources can be divided into 6 groups:

1. The most numerous group of sources is written sources (epigraphic monuments, i.e. ancient inscriptions on stone, metal, ceramics, etc.; graffiti - texts scrawled by hand on the walls of buildings, dishes; birch bark letters, manuscripts on papyrus , parchment and paper, printed materials, etc.).

2. Material monuments (tools, handicrafts, household items, dishes, clothing, jewelry, coins, weapons, remains of dwellings, architectural structures, etc.).

3. Ethnographic monuments - remnants of the ancient life of various peoples that have survived to this day.

4. Folklore materials - monuments of oral folk art, ie. legends, songs, fairy tales, proverbs, sayings, anecdotes, etc.)

5. Linguistic monuments - geographical names, personal names, etc.

6 Film and photo documents.

The study of all types of sources in the aggregate allows you to recreate a fairly complete and reliable picture of the historical process.

"History," the Russian historian Sergei Fedorovich Platonov wrote at one time, "is a science that studies specific facts in the conditions of precisely time and place, and its main goal is recognized as a systematic depiction of the development and changes in the life of individual historical societies and of all mankind."

Let's summarize the first question. The study of history is a complex process of reconstruction of the past, consisting of an alloy of messages from sources, scientists' own ideas about history, who have absorbed the experience of science.